Antibiotic resistance: a rundown of a global crisis

The advent of multidrug resistance among pathogenic bacteria is imperiling the worth of antibiotics, which have previously transformed medical sciences. The crisis of antimicrobial resistance has been ascribed to the misuse of these agents and due to unavailability of newer drugs attributable to exigent regulatory requirements and reduced financial inducements. Comprehensive efforts are needed to minimize the pace of resistance by studying emergent microorganisms, resistance mechanisms, and antimicrobial agents. Multidisciplinary approaches are required across health care settings as well as environment and agriculture sectors. Progressive alternate approaches including probiotics, antibodies, and vaccines have shown promising results in trials that suggest the role of these alternatives as preventive or adjunct therapies in future.

[1]  W. DeGrado,et al.  De novo design and in vivo activity of conformationally restrained antimicrobial arylamide foldamers , 2009, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[2]  C. Stratton,et al.  Advances in the diagnosis and treatment of Clostridium difficile infections , 2018, Emerging Microbes & Infections.

[3]  L. Piddock,et al.  Prevalence and Subtypes of Ciprofloxacin-Resistant Campylobacter spp. in Commercial Poultry Flocks before, during, and after Treatment with Fluoroquinolones , 2005, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[4]  S. Chatterjee,et al.  Indolicidin Targets Duplex DNA: Structural and Mechanistic Insight through a Combination of Spectroscopy and Microscopy , 2014, ChemMedChem.

[5]  D. Lewis The role of core groups in the emergence and dissemination of antimicrobial-resistant N gonorrhoeae , 2013, Sexually Transmitted Infections.

[6]  J. Littmann,et al.  The Ethical Significance of Antimicrobial Resistance , 2015, Public health ethics.

[7]  K. Mølbak Spread of resistant bacteria and resistance genes from animals to humans--the public health consequences. , 2004, Journal of veterinary medicine. B, Infectious diseases and veterinary public health.

[8]  Sanath H. Kumar,et al.  LmrS Is a Multidrug Efflux Pump of the Major Facilitator Superfamily from Staphylococcus aureus , 2010, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[9]  Tanya Gurieva,et al.  Successful Veterans Affairs initiative to prevent methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections revisited. , 2012, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[10]  Brad Spellberg,et al.  The 10 x '20 Initiative: pursuing a global commitment to develop 10 new antibacterial drugs by 2020. , 2010, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[11]  J. Suzich,et al.  Assessment of an Anti-Alpha-Toxin Monoclonal Antibody for Prevention and Treatment of Staphylococcus aureus-Induced Pneumonia , 2013, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[12]  Robert E. W. Hancock,et al.  The Sensor Kinase CbrA Is a Global Regulator That Modulates Metabolism, Virulence, and Antibiotic Resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa , 2010, Journal of bacteriology.

[13]  Wendy R. Sanhai,et al.  A comprehensive regulatory framework to address the unmet need for new antibacterial treatments. , 2013, The Lancet. Infectious diseases.

[14]  A. Tsakris,et al.  Carbapenemase-producing Enterobacteriaceae: now that the storm is finally here, how will timely detection help us fight back? , 2013, Future microbiology.

[15]  M. Fischbach Combination therapies for combating antimicrobial resistance. , 2011, Current opinion in microbiology.

[16]  S. Essack,et al.  Antibiotic Resistance in the Food Chain: A Developing Country-Perspective , 2016, Front. Microbiol..

[17]  H. Schweizer,et al.  High-level triclosan resistance in Pseudomonas aeruginosa is solely a result of efflux. , 2003, American journal of infection control.

[18]  M. Shahid,et al.  Antimicrobial susceptibility of Acinetobacter clinical isolates and emerging antibiogram trends for nosocomial infection management. , 2016, Revista da Sociedade Brasileira de Medicina Tropical.

[19]  J. Lynch,et al.  Evolution of antimicrobial resistance among Enterobacteriaceae (focus on extended spectrum β-lactamases and carbapenemases) , 2013, Expert opinion on pharmacotherapy.

[20]  R. Watkins,et al.  Current concepts on the virulence mechanisms of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus. , 2012, Journal of medical microbiology.

[21]  Diarmaid Hughes,et al.  Microbiological effects of sublethal levels of antibiotics , 2014, Nature Reviews Microbiology.

[22]  S. Levy,et al.  Food Animals and Antimicrobials: Impacts on Human Health , 2011, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[23]  Yi-Wei Huang,et al.  An Inducible Fusaric Acid Tripartite Efflux Pump Contributes to the Fusaric Acid Resistance in Stenotrophomonas maltophilia , 2012, PloS one.

[24]  Kim Lee,et al.  Antibiotic Sensitivity Profiles Determined with an Escherichia coli Gene Knockout Collection: Generating an Antibiotic Bar Code , 2010, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[25]  A. Walker,et al.  Decline of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in Oxfordshire hospitals is strain-specific and preceded infection-control intensification , 2011, BMJ Open.

[26]  A. Oliver,et al.  Benefit of Having Multiple ampD Genes for Acquiring β-Lactam Resistance without Losing Fitness and Virulence in Pseudomonas aeruginosa , 2008, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[27]  Jun Lin,et al.  Mechanisms of antibiotic resistance , 2015, Front. Microbiol..

[28]  J. Martínez The role of natural environments in the evolution of resistance traits in pathogenic bacteria , 2009, Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[29]  Marius Gilbert,et al.  Global trends in antimicrobial use in food animals , 2015, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[30]  P. Schierack,et al.  Description of the First Escherichia coli Clinical Isolate Harboring the Colistin Resistance Gene mcr-1 from the Indian Subcontinent , 2016, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[31]  Gregory N Tew,et al.  De novo designed synthetic mimics of antimicrobial peptides. , 2008, Current opinion in biotechnology.

[32]  D. Pompliano,et al.  Drugs for bad bugs: confronting the challenges of antibacterial discovery , 2007, Nature Reviews Drug Discovery.

[33]  A. Curtis,et al.  Application of Nanoparticle Technologies in the Combat against Anti-Microbial Resistance , 2018, Pharmaceutics.

[34]  Hans-Peter Grossart,et al.  The multifaceted roles of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance in nature , 2013, Front. Microbiol..

[35]  Antonio Ramos,et al.  Administration of spores of nontoxigenic Clostridium difficile strain M3 for prevention of recurrent C. difficile infection: a randomized clinical trial. , 2015, JAMA.

[36]  James C. Kile,et al.  Zoonotic Disease Programs for Enhancing Global Health Security , 2017, Emerging infectious diseases.

[37]  O. Franco,et al.  Understanding bacterial resistance to antimicrobial peptides: From the surface to deep inside. , 2015, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[38]  J. Bartlett,et al.  Seven ways to preserve the miracle of antibiotics. , 2013, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[39]  David Findlay,et al.  Time for a change: addressing R&D and commercialization challenges for antibacterials , 2015, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[40]  F. DeLeo,et al.  Reemergence of antibiotic-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in the genomics era. , 2009, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[41]  Ya-li Tang,et al.  The intracellular mechanism of action on Escherichia coli of BF2-A/C, two analogues of the antimicrobial peptide Buforin 2 , 2013, Journal of Microbiology.

[42]  A. Ghaffar,et al.  Access to medicines from a health system perspective , 2012, Health policy and planning.

[43]  Fernando Baquero,et al.  Interactions among Strategies Associated with Bacterial Infection: Pathogenicity, Epidemicity, and Antibiotic Resistance , 2002, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[44]  E. Abraham,et al.  An Enzyme from Bacteria able to Destroy Penicillin , 1940, Nature.

[45]  Elias Mossialos,et al.  Strategies for achieving global collective action on antimicrobial resistance , 2015, Bulletin of the World Health Organization.

[46]  A. O’Neill,et al.  Transposon library screening for identification of genetic loci participating in intrinsic susceptibility and acquired resistance to antistaphylococcal agents. , 2013, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy.

[47]  T. Laot,et al.  Safety and immunogenicity of Clostridium difficile toxoid vaccine in Japanese adults , 2017, Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics.

[48]  A. P. Williams,et al.  The role of the natural environment in the emergence of antibiotic resistance in gram-negative bacteria. , 2013, The Lancet. Infectious diseases.

[49]  D. Fisher,et al.  The impact of multidrug resistance in healthcare-associated and nosocomial Gram-negative bacteraemia on mortality and length of stay: cohort study. , 2012, Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

[50]  A. Gurtman,et al.  SA4Ag, a 4-antigen Staphylococcus aureus vaccine, rapidly induces high levels of bacteria-killing antibodies. , 2017, Vaccine.

[51]  C. Nathan Antibiotics at the crossroads , 2004, Nature.

[52]  M. Devocelle,et al.  Pro-Moieties of Antimicrobial Peptide Prodrugs , 2015, Molecules.

[53]  V. Miriagou,et al.  Rapid evolution and spread of carbapenemases among Enterobacteriaceae in Europe. , 2012, Clinical microbiology and infection : the official publication of the European Society of Clinical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases.

[54]  A. Singer,et al.  Review of Antimicrobial Resistance in the Environment and Its Relevance to Environmental Regulators , 2016, Front. Microbiol..

[55]  S. Shivaswamy,et al.  A natural human monoclonal antibody targeting Staphylococcus Protein A protects against Staphylococcus aureus bacteremia , 2018, PloS one.

[56]  R. Aminov,et al.  The role of antibiotics and antibiotic resistance in nature. , 2009, Environmental microbiology.

[57]  L. Shao,et al.  The antimicrobial activity of nanoparticles: present situation and prospects for the future , 2017, International journal of nanomedicine.

[58]  B. Jilma,et al.  A randomized, placebo-controlled phase I study assessing the safety and immunogenicity of a Pseudomonas aeruginosa hybrid outer membrane protein OprF/I vaccine (IC43) in healthy volunteers , 2014, Human vaccines & immunotherapeutics.

[59]  Robin Patel,et al.  Biofilms and Antimicrobial Resistance , 2005, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[60]  M. Wittekind,et al.  Combination Therapy With Lysin CF-301 and Antibiotic Is Superior to Antibiotic Alone for Treating Methicillin-Resistant Staphylococcus aureus–Induced Murine Bacteremia , 2013, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[61]  S. Escaich Antivirulence as a new antibacterial approach for chemotherapy. , 2008, Current opinion in chemical biology.

[62]  Vincent Burrus,et al.  Shaping bacterial genomes with integrative and conjugative elements. , 2004, Research in microbiology.

[63]  Dina Fine Maron,et al.  Restrictions on antimicrobial use in food animal production: an international regulatory and economic survey , 2013, Globalization and Health.

[64]  D. Dominey-Howes,et al.  The Antimicrobial Resistance Crisis: Causes, Consequences, and Management , 2014, Front. Public Health.

[65]  Michael M. Mwangi,et al.  The Mechanism of Heterogeneous Beta-Lactam Resistance in MRSA: Key Role of the Stringent Stress Response , 2013, PloS one.

[66]  S. Singh,et al.  The Chennai Declaration: a roadmap to tackle the challenge of antimicrobial resistance. , 2013, Indian journal of cancer.

[67]  A. Pantosti,et al.  Antimicrobial resistance: a global multifaceted phenomenon , 2015, Pathogens and global health.

[68]  A. Spanevello,et al.  Epidemiology and clinical management of XDR-TB: a systematic review by TBNET , 2009, European Respiratory Journal.

[69]  Yun-Jaie Choi,et al.  Preclinical Safety Evaluation of Intravenously Administered SAL200 Containing the Recombinant Phage Endolysin SAL-1 as a Pharmaceutical Ingredient , 2014, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[70]  Molly K. Gibson,et al.  Bacterial phylogeny structures soil resistomes across habitats , 2014, Nature.

[71]  H. Vogel,et al.  The expanding scope of antimicrobial peptide structures and their modes of action. , 2011, Trends in biotechnology.

[72]  G. Rossolini,et al.  Update on the antibiotic resistance crisis. , 2014, Current opinion in pharmacology.

[73]  B. Lushniak Antibiotic Resistance: A Public Health Crisis , 2014, Public health reports.

[74]  A. Srinivasan,et al.  New Societal Approaches to Empowering Antibiotic Stewardship. , 2016, JAMA.

[75]  M. Feldman,et al.  Gene-culture coevolutionary theory. , 1996, Trends in ecology & evolution.

[76]  F. Baquero,et al.  The global threat of antimicrobial resistance: science for intervention , 2015, New microbes and new infections.

[77]  David Laehnemann,et al.  When the Most Potent Combination of Antibiotics Selects for the Greatest Bacterial Load: The Smile-Frown Transition , 2013, PLoS biology.

[78]  Y. Tor,et al.  Antibiotics and Bacterial Resistance in the 21st Century , 2014, Perspectives in medicinal chemistry.

[79]  Luke S P Moore,et al.  Antimicrobials: access and sustainable eff ectiveness 2 Understanding the mechanisms and drivers of antimicrobial resistance , 2015 .

[80]  R. Hancock,et al.  Cationic host defense (antimicrobial) peptides. , 2006, Current opinion in immunology.

[81]  A. Coates,et al.  Novel classes of antibiotics or more of the same? , 2011, British journal of pharmacology.

[82]  P. Tulkens,et al.  Quantitative Analysis of Gentamicin, Azithromycin, Telithromycin, Ciprofloxacin, Moxifloxacin, and Oritavancin (LY333328) Activities against Intracellular Staphylococcus aureus in Mouse J774 Macrophages , 2003, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[83]  Carl Nathan,et al.  Antibiotic resistance--problems, progress, and prospects. , 2014, The New England journal of medicine.

[84]  D. Gilbert,et al.  The future of antibiotics and resistance: a tribute to a career of leadership by John Bartlett. , 2014, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[85]  T. Tsuchiya,et al.  Functional study of the novel multidrug efflux pump KexD from Klebsiella pneumoniae. , 2012, Gene.

[86]  J. Jernigan,et al.  Veterans Affairs initiative to prevent methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus infections. , 2011, The New England journal of medicine.

[87]  L. Poole-Warren,et al.  Biological performance of a novel synthetic furanone-based antimicrobial. , 2004, Biomaterials.

[88]  I. Gould,et al.  New antibiotic agents in the pipeline and how they can help overcome microbial resistance , 2013, Virulence.

[89]  A. Boonyasiri,et al.  Implementation of global antimicrobial resistance surveillance system (GLASS) in patients with bacteremia , 2018, PloS one.

[90]  Y. Kawamura,et al.  Responses of Pseudomonas aeruginosa to antimicrobials , 2014, Front. Microbiol..

[91]  Evolution of Resistance to Quorum-Sensing Inhibitors , 2014, Microbial Ecology.

[92]  P. Bergman,et al.  Vitamin D supplementation to patients with frequent respiratory tract infections: a post hoc analysis of a randomized and placebo-controlled trial , 2015, BMC Research Notes.

[93]  C. L. Ventola The antibiotic resistance crisis: part 1: causes and threats. , 2015, P & T : a peer-reviewed journal for formulary management.

[94]  J. Cronan,et al.  Triclosan Resistance of Pseudomonas aeruginosa PAO1 Is Due to FabV, a Triclosan-Resistant Enoyl-Acyl Carrier Protein Reductase , 2009, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[95]  G. Bou,et al.  Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence: a Successful or Deleterious Association in the Bacterial World? , 2013, Clinical Microbiology Reviews.

[96]  I. Chopra,et al.  The Target of Daptomycin Is Absent from Escherichia coli and Other Gram-Negative Pathogens , 2012, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[97]  Wei Zhao,et al.  A multifunctional bispecific antibody protects against Pseudomonas aeruginosa , 2014, Science Translational Medicine.

[98]  J. Davies,et al.  Origins and Evolution of Antibiotic Resistance , 1996, Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews.

[99]  H. Goossens,et al.  Antibiotic resistance—the need for global solutions , 2013, BDJ.

[100]  E. S. Anderson,et al.  Drug Resistance and its Transfer in Salmonella typhimurium , 1965, Nature.

[101]  Andreas Handel,et al.  Correction: The Role of Compensatory Mutations in the Emergence of Drug Resistance , 2007, PLoS Comput. Biol..

[102]  Brad Spellberg,et al.  Combating antimicrobial resistance: policy recommendations to save lives. , 2011, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[103]  I. Gould Antibiotic resistance: understanding how to control it. , 2012, International journal of antimicrobial agents.

[104]  D. Sack,et al.  Improved outcome in shigellosis associated with butyrate induction of an endogenous peptide antibiotic. , 2006, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[105]  Michael R Gillings,et al.  Gene flow, mobile genetic elements and the recruitment of antibiotic resistance genes into Gram-negative pathogens. , 2011, FEMS microbiology reviews.

[106]  E. Kristiansson,et al.  Pyrosequencing of Antibiotic-Contaminated River Sediments Reveals High Levels of Resistance and Gene Transfer Elements , 2011, PloS one.

[107]  S. Ruan,et al.  Modeling methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in hospitals: Transmission dynamics, antibiotic usage and its history , 2012, Theoretical Biology and Medical Modelling.

[108]  Jacques Schrenzel,et al.  A de novo‐designed antimicrobial peptide with activity against multiresistant Staphylococcus aureus acting on RsbW kinase , 2013, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[109]  Laura J V Piddock,et al.  The crisis of no new antibiotics--what is the way forward? , 2012, The Lancet. Infectious diseases.

[110]  R. Woods,et al.  Antibiotic resistance management , 2014, Evolution, medicine, and public health.

[111]  M. Khurshid,et al.  Emergence of ISAba1 harboring carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii isolates in Pakistan. , 2017, Future microbiology.

[112]  Tilmann Weber,et al.  In silico tools for the analysis of antibiotic biosynthetic pathways. , 2014, International journal of medical microbiology : IJMM.

[113]  G. Bai,et al.  Worldwide Emergence of Extensively Drug-resistant Tuberculosis , 2007, Emerging infectious diseases.

[114]  K. Kavanagh,et al.  Is the Presidential Advisory Council on Combating Antibiotic Resistance missing opportunities? , 2016, American journal of infection control.

[115]  Chris Morrison Antibacterial antibodies gain traction , 2015, Nature Reviews Drug Discovery.

[116]  V. Economou,et al.  Agriculture and food animals as a source of antimicrobial-resistant bacteria , 2015, Infection and drug resistance.

[117]  N. Woodford,et al.  Multiresistant Gram-negative bacteria: the role of high-risk clones in the dissemination of antibiotic resistance. , 2011, FEMS microbiology reviews.

[118]  A. Therien,et al.  Broad Coverage of Genetically Diverse Strains of Clostridium difficile by Actoxumab and Bezlotoxumab Predicted by In Vitro Neutralization and Epitope Modeling , 2014, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[119]  N. Woodford,et al.  Global spread of antibiotic resistance: the example of New Delhi metallo-β-lactamase (NDM)-mediated carbapenem resistance. , 2013, Journal of medical microbiology.

[120]  D. Gerding,et al.  Results From a Randomized, Placebo-Controlled Clinical Trial of a RBX2660—A Microbiota-Based Drug for the Prevention of Recurrent Clostridium difficile Infection , 2018, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[121]  Te‐Li Chen,et al.  Klebsiella pneumoniae Outer Membrane Porins OmpK35 and OmpK36 Play Roles in both Antimicrobial Resistance and Virulence , 2011, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[122]  Jianzhong Shen,et al.  Emergence of plasmid-mediated colistin resistance mechanism MCR-1 in animals and human beings in China: a microbiological and molecular biological study. , 2015, The Lancet. Infectious diseases.

[123]  B. Brooks,et al.  Therapeutic strategies to combat antibiotic resistance. , 2014, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[124]  J. Mohr,et al.  The antibiotic pipeline: reviving research and development and speeding drugs to market , 2017, Expert review of anti-infective therapy.

[125]  Gerard D. Wright Something old, something new: revisiting natural products in antibiotic drug discovery. , 2014, Canadian journal of microbiology.

[126]  M. Webber,et al.  Molecular mechanisms of antibiotic resistance , 2014, Nature Reviews Microbiology.

[127]  O. Franco,et al.  New edge of antibiotic development: antimicrobial peptides and corresponding resistance , 2014, Front. Microbiol..