Bayesian Parameter Estimation and Population Pharmacokinetics

SummaryThe widespread application of Bayesian parameter estimation in the area of therapeutic drug monitoring (TDM) has prompted the need for well conducted population studies to obtain relevant prior pharmacokinetic parameter estimates. In many cases the population has consisted of a relatively small number of subjects. This may be unavoidable for drugs used in cancer chemotherapy or in small, specific populations of patients. In contrast, information about drugs which are used extensively, such as the aminoglycosides, can be obtained by population studies which involve a large number of individuals. Indeed, this technique has proved particularly useful for determining parameter estimates which can be employed in neonatal TDM.Bayesian parameter estimation has been most frequently used for drugs with narrow therapeutic ranges such as the aminoglycosides, cyclosporin, digoxin, anticonvulsants (especially phenytoin), lithium and theophylline. However, the technique has now been extended to cytotoxic drugs, Factor VIII and warfarin. Bayesian methods have also been used to limit the number of samples required in more conventional pharmacokinetic studies with new drugs. Further advances in the use of these methods are likely to include measures of drug response and toxicity requiring population studies which also include relevant pharmacodynamic information.

[1]  M J Haumschild,et al.  Prediction of theophylline clearance using condition correction factors. , 1985, Clinical pharmacy.

[2]  Alison A. Niven The control of cyclosporin in transplantation : pharmacokinetic aspects , 1990 .

[3]  A W Kelman,et al.  Estimation of gentamicin clearance and volume of distribution in neonates and young children. , 1984, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[4]  W. Keane,et al.  Pharmacokinetics of vancomycin in patients with various degrees of renal function , 1984, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[5]  W. Stigelman,et al.  Goodman and Gilman's the Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics , 1986 .

[6]  A W Kelman,et al.  Prediction of response to theophylline in chronic bronchitis. , 1984, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[7]  J. Rotschafer,et al.  Vancomycin pharmacokinetics in patients with various degrees of renal function , 1988, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[8]  F. Follath,et al.  Experience with NONMEM: analysis of serum concentration data in patients treated with mexiletine and lidocaine. , 1984, Drug metabolism reviews.

[9]  J. D. Robinson,et al.  Comparison of Eight Phenytoin Dosing Methods in Institutionalized Patients , 1985, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[10]  D. Mungall,et al.  Bayesian Forecasting of APTT Response to Continuously Infused Heparin with and Without Warfarin Administration , 1989, Journal of clinical pharmacology.

[11]  E. Yukawa,et al.  COMPARISON OF SINGLE‐POINT PHENYTOIN DOSAGE PREDICTION TECHNIQUES , 1988, Journal of clinical pharmacy and therapeutics.

[12]  A. Vazquez Rodriguez,et al.  COMPARISON OF METHODS FOR THE PREDICTION OF PHENYTOIN CONCENTRATIONS , 1991 .

[13]  A W Kelman,et al.  Population Pharmacokinetics Theory and Clinical Application , 1986, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[14]  A Iliadis,et al.  Dosage predictions in high-dose methotrexate infusions. Part 2: Bayesian estimation of methotrexate clearance. , 1985, Cancer drug delivery.

[15]  A. Domínguez-Gil,et al.  COMPARISON OF METHODS OF CARBAMAZEPINE DOSAGE, INDIVIDUALIZATION IN EPILEPTIC PATIENTS , 1988, Journal of clinical pharmacy and therapeutics.

[16]  A Messori,et al.  Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Factor VIII in Patients with Classic Haemophilia , 1987, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[17]  J A Farringer,et al.  Bayesian forecasting of aminoglycoside dosing requirements in obese patients: influence of subpopulation versus general population pharmacokinetic parameters as the internal estimates. , 1989, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[18]  A W Kelman,et al.  OPT: a package of computer programs for parameter optimisation in clinical pharmacokinetics. , 1982, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[19]  J G Wagner New and simple method to predict dosage of drugs obeying simple Michaelis-Menten elimination kinetics and to distinguish such kinetics from simple first order and from parallel Michaelis-Menten and first order kinetics. , 1985, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[20]  D R Stanski,et al.  Plasma Concentrations of Alfentanil Required to Supplement Nitrous Oxide Anesthesia for General Surgery , 1986, Anesthesiology.

[21]  D. Mungall,et al.  Outpatient management of warfarin therapy: comparison of computer-predicted dosage adjustment to skilled professional care. , 1991, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[22]  R. Cipolle,et al.  Kinetic model for gentamicin dosing with the use of individual patient parameters , 1977, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[23]  Brown Jf,et al.  First-order versus zero-order absorption models for predicting theophylline concentrations after conversion from intravenous to oral therapy. , 1990 .

[24]  S. Bryson,et al.  Evaluation of bayesian forecasting for individualized gentamicin dosage in infants weighing 1000 g or less. , 1991, American journal of diseases of children.

[25]  Carl C. Peck,et al.  An Evaluation of Bayesian Microcomputer Predictions of Theophylline Concentrations in Newborn Infants , 1990, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[26]  James P. Duffy,et al.  Manual of Integrated HP-41C Calculator Programs for Pharmacokinetic Calculations , 1982 .

[27]  A Messori,et al.  Predictive performance of pharmacokinetic methods for phenytoin dosing: a multi-center evaluation in 282 patients with epilepsy , 1989, Epilepsy Research.

[28]  H. Chrystyn,et al.  AN ASSESSMENT OF POPULATION‐BASED AND BAYESIAN METHODS TO INDIVIDUALIZE DIGOXIN DOSES SHORTLY AFTER THE START OF THERAPY FOR ATRIAL FIBRILLATION , 1991, Journal of clinical pharmacy and therapeutics.

[29]  D J Greenblatt,et al.  Vancomycin therapy in patients with impaired renal function: a nomogram for dosage. , 1981, Annals of internal medicine.

[30]  H. Chrystyn,et al.  The Accuracy and Stability of Bayesian Theophylline Predictions , 1988, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[31]  Nina M. Graves,et al.  Phenytoin dosage predictions using population clearances , 1982 .

[32]  T. Theofanous,et al.  Multiple-dose kinetics of oral anticoagulants: methods of analysis and optimized dosing. , 1973, Journal of pharmaceutical sciences.

[33]  A. Domínguez-Gil,et al.  POPULATION PHARMACOKINETIC STUDY OF GENTAMICIN AND A BAYESIAN APPROACH IN PATIENTS WITH RENAL IMPAIRMENT , 1989, Journal of clinical pharmacy and therapeutics.

[34]  A W Kelman,et al.  Changes in Lignocaine Disposition during Long‐Term Infusion in Patients with Acute Ventricular Arrhythmias , 1987, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[35]  A Dominguez-Gil,et al.  Parametrization by non-linear regression and bayesian estimation of bentazepam in a multiple dosage regimen in humans. , 1987, International journal of clinical pharmacology, therapy, and toxicology.

[36]  H. Chrystyn,et al.  The accuracy of a pharmacokinetic theophylline predictor using once daily dosing. , 1987, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[37]  M. J. García,et al.  Prediction of Imipramine Serum Levels in Enuretic Children by a Bayesian Method: Comparison with Two Other Conventional Dosing Methods , 1989, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[38]  L Hendeles,et al.  Clinical pharmacology of drugs used for asthma. , 1981, Pediatric clinics of North America.

[39]  H. Chrystyn,et al.  A COMPARISON OF GRAPHICAL NOMOGRAM METHODS WITH A COMPUTERIZED BAYESIAN ANALYSIS METHOD IN THE INTERPRETATION OF SERUM PHENYTOIN CONCENTRATIONS , 1986, Journal of clinical and hospital pharmacy.

[40]  Godley Pj,et al.  Evaluation of a Bayesian regression-analysis computer program using non-steady-state phenytoin concentrations. , 1987 .

[41]  T. Fabian,et al.  Disposition of phenytoin in critically ill trauma patients. , 1987, Clinical pharmacy.

[42]  D R Stanski,et al.  Evaluating the Accuracy of Using Population Pharmacokinetic Data to Predict Plasma Concentrations of Alfentanil , 1988, Anesthesiology.

[43]  R G Smith,et al.  PHENYTOIN DOSAGE INDIVIDUALIZATION–FIVE METHODS COMPARED IN THE ELDERLY , 1990, Journal of clinical pharmacy and therapeutics.

[44]  E. A. van der Velde,et al.  Practical and Theoretical Aspects of Phenytoin Administration , 1980 .

[45]  M. A. Mergener,et al.  Pharmacokinetics of the Digoxin-Quinidine Interaction via Mixed-Effect Modelling , 1992, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[46]  D R Stanski,et al.  Population pharmacokinetics of alfentanil: the average dose-plasma concentration relationship and interindividual variability in patients. , 1987, Anesthesiology.

[47]  A Messori,et al.  A microcomputer program for individualizing factor VIII dosage in hemophilia patients undergoing major surgery. , 1986, Computer methods and programs in biomedicine.

[48]  L B Sheiner,et al.  Bayesian individualization of pharmacokinetics: simple implementation and comparison with non-Bayesian methods. , 1982, Journal of pharmaceutical sciences.

[49]  J. Garrelts,et al.  Accuracy of Bayesian, Sawchuk-Zaske, and nomogram dosing methods for vancomycin. , 1987, Clinical pharmacy.

[50]  K. Rodvold,et al.  Bayesian Forecasting of Serum Gentamicin Concentrations in Intensive Care Patients , 1990, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[51]  R Miller,et al.  Effect of source of population data on phenytoin dosage predictions in black patients. , 1989, Clinical pharmacy.

[52]  D. Mungall,et al.  Pharmacodynamics of Warfarin at Steady State , 1987, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[53]  E. Yukawa,et al.  Clinical utility of a new and simple technique for individualizing phenytoin dosage. , 1989, Journal of pharmacobio-dynamics.

[54]  S. Higuchi,et al.  Predicting serum lithium concentration using Bayesian method: a comparison with other methods. , 1988, Journal of pharmacobio-dynamics.

[55]  M. Relling,et al.  Clinical pharmacodynamic studies of high-dose methotrexate in acute lymphocytic leukemia. , 2009, NCI monographs : a publication of the National Cancer Institute.

[56]  T. Welty,et al.  A Comparison of Phenytoin Dosing Methods in Private Practice Seizure Patients , 1986, Epilepsia.

[57]  A W Kelman,et al.  Evaluation of Six Gentamicin Nomograms Using a Bayesian Parameter Estimation Program , 1990, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[58]  L Hendeles,et al.  Theophylline A “State of the Art” Review , 1983, Pharmacotherapy.

[59]  G. Tucker,et al.  Backtracking booze with Bayes--the retrospective interpretation of blood alcohol data. , 1991, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[60]  H C Böttger,et al.  Use of Aminoglycosides in Critically Ill Patients: Individualization of Dosage Using Bayesian Statistics and Pharmacokinetic Principles , 1988, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[61]  J. Rotschafer,et al.  Evaluation of a Two‐Compartment Bayesian Forecasting Program for Predicting Vancomycin Concentrations , 1989, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[62]  Lewis B. Sheiner,et al.  A Microcomputer Drug (Theophylline) Dosing Program Which Assists and Teaches Physicians , 1980 .

[63]  E Yukawa,et al.  Bayesian prediction of serum phenytoin concentration in a simulation study. , 1988, Chemical & pharmaceutical bulletin.

[64]  E. Yukawa,et al.  POPULATION PHARMACOKINETICS OF PHENYTOIN FROM ROUTINE CLINICAL DATA IN JAPAN , 1989, Journal of clinical pharmacy and therapeutics.

[65]  L B Sheiner,et al.  Forecasting individual pharmacokinetics , 1979, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[66]  F H Derkx,et al.  Clinical pharmacokinetics: a comprehensive system for therapeutic drug monitoring and prescribing. , 1984, British medical journal.

[67]  M. Oellerich,et al.  Evaluation of a Novel Bayesian Method for Individualizing Theophylline Dosage , 1988, Journal of clinical chemistry and clinical biochemistry. Zeitschrift fur klinische Chemie und klinische Biochemie.

[68]  A Forrest,et al.  Phase I trial using adaptive control dosing of hexamethylene bisacetamide (NSC 95580). , 1989, Cancer research.

[69]  Brian Whiting,et al.  A Bayesian Kinetic Control Strategy for Cyclosporin in Renal Transplantation , 1991 .

[70]  T. Tomson,et al.  Clinical Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacological Effects of Carbamazepine and Carbamazepine-10,11-Epoxide , 1986 .

[71]  F. Follath,et al.  Rapid Prediction of Individual Dosage Requirements for Lignocaine , 1984, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[72]  J. Rotschafer,et al.  Individualizing vancomycin dosage regimens: one- versus two-compartment Bayesian models. , 1989, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[73]  Neil Massoud,et al.  Pharmacokinetic Basis for Drug Treatment , 1984 .

[74]  R Miller,et al.  Therapeutic drug monitoring in a paediatric epilepsy clinic. , 1990, South African medical journal = Suid-Afrikaanse tydskrif vir geneeskunde.

[75]  D. Mungall,et al.  Computer-assisted oral and intravenous theophylline therapy. , 1982, Computers and biomedical research, an international journal.

[76]  D. Brater,et al.  Bayesian and Least‐Squares Methods for Vancomycin Dosing , 1987, The American journal of the medical sciences.

[77]  P. Blain,et al.  Steady-state Pharmacokinetics of Phenytoin from Routinely Collected Patient Data , 1983, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[78]  D R Stanski,et al.  Bayesian Forecasting Improves the Prediction of Intraoperative Plasma Concentrations of Alfentanil , 1988, Anesthesiology.

[79]  S L George,et al.  Clinical pharmacodynamics of high-dose methotrexate in acute lymphocytic leukemia. Identification of a relation between concentration and effect. , 1986, The New England journal of medicine.

[80]  Sarubbi Fa,et al.  Gentamicin Serum Concentrations: Pharmacokinetic Predictions , 1976 .

[81]  A. Richens,et al.  A Study of the Pharmacokinetics of Phenytoin (Diphenylhydantoin) in Epileptic Patients, and the Development of a Nomogram for Making Dose Increments , 1975, Epilepsia.

[82]  D. Brater,et al.  Aminoglycoside dosing in pediatric patients. , 1989, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[83]  A Iliadis,et al.  Application of Bayesian estimation for the prediction of an appropriate dosage regimen of amikacin. , 1989, Journal of pharmaceutical sciences.

[84]  F C Robinson,et al.  A graphic method for predicting individual phenytoin levels in an office practice. , 1982, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[85]  L A Bauer,et al.  Age and phenytoin kinetics in adult epileptics , 1982, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[86]  T. Fujita,et al.  Development of the convenient and direct numerical analytical method of the pharmacokinetics of phenytoin by an ordinary and/or the Bayesian weighted least-squares method using the program MULTI2(BAYES). , 1989, Journal of pharmacobio-dynamics.

[87]  L B Sheiner,et al.  Theophylline disposition in acutely ill hospitalized patients. The effect of smoking, heart failure, severe airway obstruction, and pneumonia. , 1978, The American review of respiratory disease.

[88]  A Forrest,et al.  A prospective evaluation of optimal sampling theory in the determination of the steady‐state pharmacokinetics of piperacillin in febrile neutropenic cancer patients , 1989, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[89]  Thomas M. Ludden,et al.  Evaluation of a Bayesian Regression Program for Predicting Warfarin Response , 1989, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[90]  G. Levy,et al.  Kinetics of pharmacologic effects in man: The anticoagulant action of warfarin , 1969, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[91]  P J Godley,et al.  Comparison of a Bayesian Program with Three Microcomputer Programs for Predicting Gentamicin Concentrations , 1988, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[92]  W. Evans,et al.  Clinical pharmacodynamics of continuous infusion teniposide: systemic exposure as a determinant of response in a phase I trial. , 1987, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[93]  A W Kelman,et al.  Comparison of a Bayesian Forecasting Technique with a New Method for Estimating Phenytoin Dose Requirements , 1988, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[94]  K Bachmann,et al.  A new approach to establishing individualized maintenance doses of phenytoin. , 1985, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[95]  K. Rodvold,et al.  Predictive Performance of Sawchuk‐Zaske and Bayesian Dosing Methods for Tobramycin , 1987, Journal of clinical pharmacology.

[96]  R. Mason,et al.  Pharmacokinetics of Lithium: Elimination Half-Time, Renal Clearance and Apparent Volume of Distribution in Schizophrenia , 1978, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[97]  A H Neims,et al.  Pharmacokinetic aspects of theophylline in premature newborns. , 1976, The New England journal of medicine.

[98]  Sarubbi Fa,et al.  Amikacin Serum Concentrations: Prediction of Levels and Dosage Guidelines , 1978 .

[99]  L. Goodman,et al.  The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics , 1941 .

[100]  David Z. D'Argenio,et al.  Advanced Methods of Pharmacokinetic and Pharmacodynamic Systems Analysis , 2004, Springer US.

[101]  J J Schentag,et al.  Factors affecting theophylline clearances: age, tobacco, marijuana, cirrhosis, congestive heart failure, obesity, oral contraceptives, benzodiazepines, barbiturates, and ethanol. , 1979, Journal of pharmaceutical sciences.

[102]  G J Yuen,et al.  Phenytoin Dosage Predictions in Paediatric Patients , 1989, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[103]  L A Bauer,et al.  Phenytoin Michaelis-Menten Pharmacokinetics in Caucasian Paediatric Patients , 1983, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[104]  A Messori,et al.  A calculator program for clinical application of the Bayesian method of predicting plasma drug levels. , 1985, Computer programs in biomedicine.

[105]  Roger L. Hughes,et al.  Gentamicin and Vancomycin Removal by Continuous Venovenous Hemofiltration , 1991, DICP : the annals of pharmacotherapy.

[106]  J. Rodman,et al.  Pharmacokinetics of continuous infusion of methotrexate and teniposide in pediatric cancer patients. , 1990, Cancer research.

[107]  E A van der Velde,et al.  Practical and theoretical aspects of phenytoin administration. II. Prediction of plasma concentration. , 1980, European neurology.

[108]  A Messori,et al.  Comparison of two pharmacokinetic techniques for individualizing factor VIII dosage in haemophilia patients. , 1985, Haematologica.

[109]  A Dominguez-Gil,et al.  Pharmacokinetics of tiadipone: a new anxiolytic. , 1986, International journal of clinical pharmacology, therapy, and toxicology.

[110]  J P Ornato,et al.  Computer-assisted optimization of aminophylline therapy in the emergency department. , 1989, The American journal of emergency medicine.

[111]  J. McNeil,et al.  A Comparison of the Accuracy of a Least Squares Regression, a Bayesian, Chiou’s and the Steady-State Clearance Method of Individualising Theophylline Dosage , 1988, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[112]  S E Judge,et al.  Effect of general anaesthetics on synaptic ion channels. , 1983, British journal of anaesthesia.

[113]  J R Koup,et al.  Predictive performance of computer dosing methods for tobramycin using two pharmacokinetic models and two weighting algorithms. , 1986, Clinical pharmacy.

[114]  T. M. Ludden,et al.  OPTIMUM PHENYTOIN-DOSAGE REGIMENS , 1976, The Lancet.

[115]  P J Huber,et al.  A Bayesian feedback method of aminoglycoside dosing , 1985, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[116]  D. Mungall,et al.  Effect of using warfarin plasma concentrations in Bayesian forecasting of prothrombin-time response. , 1987, Clinical pharmacy.

[117]  A W Kelman,et al.  Kinetic predictive techniques applied to lignocaine therapeutic drug monitoring. , 1983, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[118]  C C Peck,et al.  Clinical Assessment of a Two‐Compartment Bayesian Forecasting Method for Lidocaine , 1988, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[119]  A. Richens,et al.  PHENYTOIN DOSAGE NOMOGRAM , 1975, The Lancet.

[120]  K. Rodvold,et al.  An Updated Comparison of Drug Dosing Methods , 1991, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[121]  T Ishizaki,et al.  Michaelis-Menten pharmacokinetics of diphenylhydantoin and application in the pediatric age patient. , 1980, The Journal of pediatrics.

[122]  S L Beal,et al.  Evaluation of a Bayesian regression-analysis computer program for predicting phenytoin concentration. , 1986, Clinical pharmacy.

[123]  A L Smith,et al.  Hypothesis for the Individualisation of Drug Dosage , 1979, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[124]  P J Perry,et al.  Pharmacokinetic protocol for predicting serum lithium levels. , 1982, Journal of clinical psychopharmacology.

[125]  A Iliadis,et al.  Bayesian Estimation of Cyclosporine Clearance in Bone Marrow Graft , 1990, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[126]  T Uematsu,et al.  Prediction of individual dosage requirements for lignocaine: a validation study for Bayesian forecasting in Japanese patients. , 1989, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[127]  I D Watson,et al.  Assessment of Theophylline Compliance in General Practice Using a ‘Compliance Index’ Based on Apparent Drug Clearance , 1991, Annals of clinical biochemistry.

[128]  A Forrest,et al.  Prospective use of optimal sampling theory: Steady‐state ciprofloxacin pharmacokinetics in critically ill trauma patients , 1989, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[129]  J G Weg,et al.  Reliability of theophylline clearance in determining chronic oral dosage regimens. , 1979, American journal of hospital pharmacy.

[130]  C. Denaro,et al.  Comparison of Sawchuk-Zaske and Bayesian forecasting for aminoglycosides in seriously ill patients. , 1989, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[131]  R W Jelliffe,et al.  Application of a Bayesian method to monitor and adjust vancomycin dosage regimens , 1990, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[132]  P J Perry,et al.  The Utility of a Single-Point Dosing Protocol for Predicting Steady-State Lithium Levels , 1986, British Journal of Psychiatry.

[133]  E Yukawa,et al.  Clinical evaluation of population pharmacokinetic parameters in phenytoin dosage adjustment. , 1989, Chemical & pharmaceutical bulletin.

[134]  R. Miller,et al.  Population pharmacokinetics of phenytoin in South African black patients. , 1987, South African medical journal = Suid-Afrikaanse tydskrif vir geneeskunde.

[135]  M J Ratain,et al.  Limited sampling models for amonafide (NSC 308847) pharmacokinetics. , 1988, Cancer research.

[136]  M E Burton,et al.  A controlled trial of the cost benefit of computerized bayesian aminoglycoside administration , 1991, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[137]  A. Iliadis,et al.  A limited sampling procedure for estimating adriamycin pharmacokinetics in cancer patients. , 1989, British Journal of Cancer.

[138]  L B Sheiner,et al.  Improved computer-assisted digoxin therapy. A method using feedback of measured serum digoxin concentrations. , 1975, Annals of internal medicine.

[139]  M J Ratain,et al.  Limited sampling model for vinblastine pharmacokinetics. , 1987, Cancer treatment reports.

[140]  William J. Jusko,et al.  Berichten , 2005, Pharmaceutisch weekblad.

[141]  G. Matzke,et al.  Clinical Pharmacokinetics of Vancomycin , 1986, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[142]  J J Schentag,et al.  System for clinical pharmacokinetic monitoring of theophylline therapy. , 1976, American journal of hospital pharmacy.

[143]  J. C. Manelli,et al.  Evaluation of a Bayesian Method of Amikacin Dosing in Intensive Care Unit Patients with Normal or Impaired Renal Function , 1987, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[144]  Peter W. Mullen,et al.  Optimal phenytoin therapy: A new technique for individualizing dosage , 1978, Clinical pharmacology and therapy.

[145]  S Vozeh,et al.  Computer‐Assisted Drug Assay Interpretation Based on Bayesian Estimation of Individual Pharmacokinetics: Application to Lidocaine , 1985, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[146]  J W Taylor,et al.  Predicting Phenytoin Dosages Using Bayesian Feedback: A Comparison with Other Methods , 1983, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[147]  M. D. Privitera,et al.  Clinical Utility of a Bayesian Dosing Program for Phenytoin , 1989, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[148]  D. Mungall,et al.  Bayesian pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic forecasting of prothrombin response to warfarin therapy: preliminary evaluation. , 1985, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[149]  M Zetin,et al.  A simple mathematical model for predicting lithium dose requirement. , 1983, The Journal of clinical psychiatry.

[150]  G A Edwards,et al.  Evaluation of Three Theophylline Dosing Methods in Pediatric Patients , 1991, DICP : the annals of pharmacotherapy.

[151]  A Forrest,et al.  An evaluation of optimal sampling strategy and adaptive study design , 1988, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[152]  S. Higuchi,et al.  PEDA: a microcomputer program for parameter estimation and dosage adjustment in clinical practice. , 1987, Journal of pharmacobio-dynamics.

[153]  H Chrystyn Validation of the use of Bayesian Analysis in the Optimization of Gentamicin Therapy from the Commencement of Dosing , 1988, Drug intelligence & clinical pharmacy.

[154]  C C Peck,et al.  Bayesian regression analysis of non-steady-state phenytoin concentrations: evaluation of predictive performance. , 1989, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[155]  J W Taylor,et al.  Phenytoin Clearances in a Compliant Population: Description and Application , 1986, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[156]  Ausems Me,et al.  Plasma concentrations of alfentanil required to supplement nitrous oxide anaesthesia for lower abdominal surgery. , 1983, British journal of anaesthesia.

[157]  M E Burton,et al.  Evaluation of a Bayesian Method for Predicting Vancomycin Dosing , 1989, DICP : the annals of pharmacotherapy.

[158]  M D Appleman,et al.  Comparison of two microcomputer Bayesian pharmacokinetic programs for predicting serum gentamicin concentrations. , 1990, Clinical pharmacy.

[159]  A. Richens,et al.  Predicting Phenytoin Dose—A Revised Nomogram , 1979, Therapeutic drug monitoring.

[160]  Rajesh A. Patel,et al.  Bayesian Forecasting of Serum Lithium Concentrations , 1989, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[161]  Jean-Louis Steimer,et al.  Feedback Control Methods for Drug Dosage Optimisation , 1985, Clinical pharmacokinetics.

[162]  K Yamaoka,et al.  A nonlinear multiple regression program, MULTI2 (BAYES), based on Bayesian algorithm for microcomputers. , 1985, Journal of pharmacobio-dynamics.

[163]  T. Fabian,et al.  Phenytoin pharmacokinetics in critically ill trauma patients , 1988, Clinical pharmacology and therapeutics.

[164]  H. Chrystyn,et al.  Bayesian derived predictions for twice daily theophylline under outpatient conditions and an assessment of optimal sampling times. , 1989, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[165]  Jelliffe Rw,et al.  Comparison of four methods for predicting serum gentamicin concentrations in surgical patients with perforated or gangrenous appendicitis. , 1987 .

[166]  N Imaeda,et al.  Prediction of steady-state plasma theophylline concentration by Bayesian algorithm. , 1988, International journal of clinical pharmacology, therapy, and toxicology.

[167]  F H Derkx,et al.  Evaluation of a microcomputer program (OPT) for parameter optimisation in clinical pharmacokinetics: gentamicin and tobramycin. , 1987, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[168]  A. Richens,et al.  SERUM-PHENYTOIN LEVELS IN MANAGEMENT OF EPILEPSY , 1975, The Lancet.