Anterior cingulate error‐related activity is modulated by predicted reward

Learning abilities depend on detection and exploitation of errors. In primates, this function involves the anterior cingulate cortex. However, whether anterior cingulate error‐related activity indicates occurrence of inappropriate responses or results from other computations is debated. Here we have tested whether reward‐related parameters modulate error‐related activity of anterior cingulate neurons. Recordings in monkeys performing stimulus–reward associations and preliminary data obtained with a problem‐solving task revealed major properties of error‐related unit activity: (i) their amplitude varies with the amount of predicted reward or the proximity to reward delivery; (ii) they appear both after execution and performance errors; (iii) they do not indicate which error occurred or which correction to make; and (iv), importantly, the activity of these neurons also increases following an external signal indicating the necessity to shift response. Hence, we conclude that anterior cingulate ‘error’ activity might represent a negative deviation from a predicted goal, and does not only reflect error detection but signals events interrupting potentially rewarded actions.

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