The interaction of water with solid surfaces: Fundamental aspects

Abstract The purpose of this review is to compare and discuss recent experimental and theoretical results in the field of H2O-solid interactions. We emphasize studies of low (submonolayer) coverages of water on well-characterized, single-crystal surfaces of metals, semiconductors and oxides. We discuss the factors which influence dissociative versus associative adsorption pathways. When H2O adsorbs molecularly, it tends to form three-dimensional hydrogen-bonded clusters, even at fractional monolayer coverages, because the strength of the attractive interaction between two molecules is comparable to that of the substrate-H2O bond. The template effect of the substrate is important in determining both the local orientation and long-range order of H2O molecules in these clusters. The influence of surface additive atoms (e.g., O, Br, Na, K) and also surface imperfections (e.g. steps and defects) on the surface structure and chemistry of H2O is examined in detail. Some results on single-crystal substrates are compared with earlier measurements of H2O adsorption on high-area materials.

[1]  R. Egdell,et al.  The adsorption of water on SrTiO3 (100): a study of electron energy loss and photoelectron spectroscopies , 1982 .

[2]  J. Ferraro.  Low-frequency vibrations of inorganic and coordination compounds , 1971 .

[3]  M. W. Roberts,et al.  Hydroxylation and dehydroxylation at Cu(III) surfaces , 1979 .

[4]  D. Elliott.  Integrated Circuit Fabrication Technology , 1982 .

[5]  Investigating ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy of ice , 1979 .

[6]  K. Bange,et al.  Water adsorption on bromine-covered copper single crystal surfaces , 1983 .

[7]  D. Rath,et al.  Continuous work function monitoring for electrode emersion , 1981 .

[8]  A. Fujishima,et al.  Electrochemical Photolysis of Water at a Semiconductor Electrode , 1972, Nature.

[9]  A. Anderson.  Reactions and structures of water on clean and oxygen covered Pt(111) and Fe(100) , 1981 .

[10]  P. Kebarle,et al.  Hydration of the alkali ions in the gas phase. Enthalpies and entropies of reactions M+(H2O)n-1 + H2O = M+(H2O)n , 1970 .

[11]  S. R. Pollack,et al.  Room temperature adsorption of water by aluminum thin films , 1972 .

[12]  G. Somorjai,et al.  Electron spectroscopy studies of the chemisorption of O2, H2 and H2O on the TiO2(100) surfaces with varied stoichiometry: Evidence for the photogeneration of Ti+3 and for its importance in chemisorption , 1978 .

[13]  F. P. Fehlner,et al.  Low-Temperature Oxidation: The Role of Vitreous Oxides , 1986 .

[14]  W. Mokwa,et al.  TDS and LEED studies of H2O adsorption on GaAs(110) , 1984 .

[15]  F. Solymosi,et al.  Adsorption of H2O on clean and on boron-contaminated Rh surfaces , 1986 .

[16]  J. Yates,et al.  Assignment of a surface vibrational mode by chemical means: Modification of the lattice modes of Al2O3 by a surface reaction with H2O , 1986 .

[17]  C. Benndorf,et al.  H2O interaction with clean and oxygen precovered Ni(110) , 1981 .

[18]  G. Somorjai,et al.  Water adsorption on the (001) plane of Fe2O3: an XPS, UPS, Auger, and TPD study , 1986 .

[19]  J. Demuth,et al.  CH Vibration Softening and the Dehydrogenation of Hydrocarbon Molecules on Ni(111) and Pt(111) , 1978 .

[20]  H. Onuki,et al.  Electronic Structures of Water and Ice , 1977 .

[21]  W. H. Weinberg,et al.  Summary Abstract: Chemisorption of water on Rh(111) , 1980 .

[22]  P. Thiel,et al.  The vibrational spectra of chemisorbed molecular clusters: H2O on Ru(001) , 1984 .

[23]  D. W. Turner,et al.  Molecular Photoelectron Spectroscopy , 1972 .

[24]  T. Madey,et al.  The adsorption of water on clean and oxygen-dosed Ru(011) , 1982 .

[25]  C. Bauschlicher.  H2O/Ni(100) and NH3/Ni(100): A computational approach , 1985 .

[26]  E. Williams,et al.  The interaction of electron beams with water admitted at aluminium single crystal (100) studied by ESD and AES , 1985 .

[27]  M. Molina,et al.  Chemical kinetics and photochemical data for use in stratospheric modeling , 1985 .

[28]  G. Somorjai,et al.  PHOTOCATALYTIC AND PHOTOELECTROCHEMICAL HYDROGEN PRODUCTION ON STRONTIUM TITANATE SINGLE CRYSTALS , 1980 .

[29]  J. Rabalais,et al.  Surface recoiling, XPS and UPS study of chemisorption of H2, O2 and H2O on lanthanum , 1984 .

[30]  M. Hoffbauer,et al.  Production of hydroxyl on polycrystalline nickel studied by thermal desorption/laser-induced fluorescence , 1985 .

[31]  H. Oswald.  Über die Bindung der Wassermolekel in den Verbindungen MeIISO4, 1 H2O und MeIISeO4, 1 H2O: II. Infrarotspektrographische und kernmagnetische Resonanz-Untersuchungen. (MeII = Mg, Ni, Cu, Co, Fe, Zn, Mn) , 1965 .

[32]  A. Winkler,et al.  Adsorption of H2O on potassium films , 1986 .

[33]  M. Arshadi,et al.  Hydration of the halide negative ions in the gas phase. II. Comparison of hydration energies for the alkali positive and halide negative ions , 1970 .

[34]  H. Marchart.  Heterogeneous Exchange between Chromium (III)-oxide and Chromate , 1965, Nature.

[35]  T. Madey,et al.  The structure of the surface hydration shell of bromide on Ag(110) , 1985 .

[36]  J. Yates,et al.  Evidence for the Conformation of H2O Adsorbed on Ru(001). , 1977 .

[37]  C. R. Brundle,et al.  Ultra-violet and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (UPS and XPS) of CO, CO2, O2 and H2O on molybdenum and gold films , 1974 .

[38]  A. Hubbard,et al.  Quantum mechanical description of electrode reactions , 1976 .

[39]  J. Jupille,et al.  Interaction of H2O with basal and stepped faces of rhenium: An ESDIAD study , 1984 .

[40]  G. Dresselhaus,et al.  Chemisorbed phases of H2O on TiO2 and SrTiO3 , 1977 .

[41]  J. Mccammon,et al.  The interaction of O2− with water , 1986 .

[42]  J. White,et al.  Photodecomposition of water over Pt/TiO2 catalysts , 1980 .

[43]  J. Paul.  UPS spectra of H2O, CH3OH and C5H9OH adsorbed onto Cu(111)/Na and Na(cp) , 1985 .

[44]  M. Henzler,et al.  The adsorption of water vapor on clean cleaved germanium: I. Structural and kinetic properties , 1973 .

[45]  B. J. Mason,et al.  The physics of clouds , 1971 .

[46]  J. Yates,et al.  Interaction of hydrogen, carbon monoxide, and formaldehyde with ruthenium , 1977 .

[47]  R. Hauge,et al.  Infrared matrix-isolation studies of the interactions and reactions of Group 3A metal atoms with water , 1980 .

[48]  A. Anderson,et al.  Water adsorption on an iron oxide surface , 1983 .

[49]  Y. Xing,et al.  Orientation dependent adsorption on a cylindrical silicon crystal , 1985 .

[50]  G. Somorjai,et al.  The preparation and selected properties of Mg-doped p-type iron oxide as a photocathode for the photoelectrolysis of water using visible light , 1983 .

[51]  G. Somorjai,et al.  Mg- and Si-doped iron oxides for the photocatalyzed production of hydrogen from water by visible light (2.2 eV ≤ hv ≤ 2.7 eV) , 1982 .

[52]  G. Fisher,et al.  The interaction of water with the Pt(111) surface , 1980 .

[53]  W. H. Weinberg,et al.  Chemisorption geometry of hydrogen on Ni(111): Order and disorder , 1979 .

[54]  G. Fisher,et al.  Identification of an Adsorbed Hydroxyl Species on the Pt(111) Surface , 1980 .

[55]  Philip G. Harrison,et al.  Tin oxide surfaces. Part 1.—Surface hydroxyl groups and the chemisorption of carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide on tin(IV) oxide , 1975 .

[56]  G. Ertl,et al.  Phase transitions of a two-dimensional chemisorbed system: H on Fe(110) , 1982 .

[57]  P. Thiel,et al.  Isotope effect in water desorption from Ru(001) , 1987 .

[58]  L. Pedersen,et al.  Surface complexes between O2, H2O and lithium , 1979 .

[59]  J. White,et al.  Interaction of PH3 coadsorbed with H2, D2, O2 and H2O on Rh(100) , 1985 .

[60]  I. Shavitt,et al.  Ab initio SCF and CI studies on the ground state of the water molecule. I. Comparison of CGTO and STO basis sets near the Hartree-Fock limit , 1975 .

[61]  K. Bennemann,et al.  Study of water adsorption on metal surfaces , 1980 .

[62]  A. Anderson,et al.  Mechanism of Iron dissolution and passivation in an aqueous environment: Active and transition ranges , 1983 .

[63]  K. Maxwell,et al.  Adsorption on clean germanium surfaces , 1959 .

[64]  R. Gomer,et al.  Field Emission and Field Ionization , 1961 .

[65]  S. R. Pollack,et al.  The initial oxidation of aluminum thin films at room temperature , 1972 .

[66]  D. Tevault,et al.  Laser diagnostic of matrix-isolated oh radicals from oxidation of H2 on platinum , 1979 .

[67]  G. Somorjai,et al.  UPS and XPS studies of the chemisorption of O2, H2 AND H2O on reduced and stoichiometric SrTiO3(111) surfaces; The effects of illumination , 1980 .

[68]  T. H. Upton,et al.  Carbon-hydrogen (CH)-metal interactions of adsorbed cyclic hydrocarbons , 1984 .

[69]  C. Nyberg,et al.  Adsorption and reaction of water, oxygen, and hydrogen on Pd(100): Identification of adsorbed hydroxyl and implications for the catalytic H2–O2 reaction , 1984 .

[70]  J. Nørskov,et al.  Microscopic model for the poisoning and promotion of adsorption rates by electronegative and electropositive atoms , 1984 .

[71]  T. Madey,et al.  Influence of the image interaction on ion desorption processes , 1984 .

[72]  S. Semancik,et al.  Coadsorption of water and sodium on the Ru(001) surface , 1983 .

[73]  T. Madey,et al.  The adsorption of water and oxygen on Ag(110): A study of the interactions among water molecules, hydroxyl groups, and oxygen atoms , 1987 .

[74]  K. Fujiwara,et al.  Electron impact desorption of ions from gas‐covered Si(111) surfaces , 1975 .

[75]  T. Madey,et al.  H2O adsorption on Ni(100): Evidence for oriented water dimers , 1985 .

[76]  E. Clementi,et al.  Study of the structure of molecular complexes. VIII. Small clusters of water molecules surrounding Li+, Na+, K+, F−, and Cl− ions , 1974 .

[77]  D. Schmeißer.  A comparative study of O2, H2 and H2O adsorption on Si(100) , 1984 .

[78]  G. Dresselhaus,et al.  Chemisorbed phases of O2 on TiO2 and SrTiO3 , 1978 .

[79]  S. Affrossman,et al.  X-ray photoelectron studies of the reaction of clean metals (Mg, Al, Cr, Mn) with oxygen and water vapour , 1975 .

[80]  T. Madey,et al.  Calculations of reneutralization effects in ESDIAD , 1986 .

[81]  W. H. Weinberg,et al.  The chemisorption of hydrogen on the (110) surface of iridium , 1980 .

[82]  L. Firment,et al.  Low energy electron diffraction studies of the surfaces of molecular crystals (ice, ammonia, naphthalene, benzene) , 1979 .

[83]  S. Sinharoy,et al.  Binding states of water vapor on cleaved germanium , 1975 .

[84]  T. Madey.  Electron- and Photon-Stimulated Desorption: Probes of Structure and Bonding at Surfaces , 1986, Science.

[85]  P. Uvdal,et al.  The oxygen–water reaction on Pd(100): Observation of a precursor complex , 1986 .

[86]  M. W. Roberts,et al.  The specificity of surface oxygen in the activation of adsorbed water at metal surfaces , 1983 .

[87]  Keiji Morokuma,et al.  Molecular Orbital Studies of Hydrogen Bonds. III. C=O···H–O Hydrogen Bond in H2CO···H2O and H2CO···2H2O , 1971 .

[88]  L. H. Little,et al.  Infrared Spectra of Adsorbed Species , 1966 .

[89]  A. Spitzer,et al.  The adsorption of water on Pt(111) studied by irreflection and UV-photoemission spectroscopy , 1984 .

[90]  T. Madey,et al.  Coadsorption-Induced Azimuthal Ordering in Molecular Adsorbate Layers:H2O and NH3on Oxygen-Precovered Ni(111) , 1981 .

[91]  A. Robinson.  Consensus on Silicon Surface Structure Near: Experiment and theory support a recent Japanese model of the elusive structure of a clean silicon surface, thereby bringing a journey of a quarter century close to its end. , 1986, Science.

[92]  R. H. Stulen,et al.  Electron-stimulated desorption and thermal desorption spectrometry of H2O on nickel (111) , 1985 .

[93]  E. Bauer,et al.  Thermal desorption of metals from tungsten single crystal surfaces , 1975 .

[94]  J. A. Schultz,et al.  TOF spectra of direct recoils: I. Chemisorption of O2, H2O, and CH2OH on magnesium , 1984 .

[95]  K. Nakamoto.  Infrared and Raman Spectra of Inorganic and Coordination Compounds , 1978 .

[96]  M. Bowker,et al.  Oxygen induced adsorption and reaction of H2, H2O, CO and CO2 on single crystal Ag(110) , 1980 .

[97]  L. Pauling.  The Structure and Entropy of Ice and of Other Crystals with Some Randomness of Atomic Arrangement , 1935 .

[98]  G. Mitchell,et al.  Identification of the intermediate in the water formation reaction on Pt(111) , 1987 .

[99]  A. V. Kiselev,et al.  Infrared Spectra of Surface Compounds , 1975 .

[100]  R. Kötz,et al.  Photoelectron spectroscopic study of emersed gold electrodes , 1983 .

[101]  B. C. Khanra.  Cluster molecular-orbital study of the chemisorption of a water molecule on ruthenium(001) , 1981 .

[102]  Eugene A. Irene,et al.  Silicon Oxidation Studies: Some Aspects of the Initial Oxidation Regime , 1978 .

[103]  B. Sexton,et al.  The adsorption and reaction of H2O on clean and oxygen covered Ag(110) , 1981 .

[104]  F. Meyer.  Ellipsometric study of adsorption complexes on silicon , 1971 .

[105]  B. Sexton.  High resolution electron energy loss spectrometer for vibrational surface studies , 1979 .

[106]  V. Rehn,et al.  Photon-stimulated desorption of ions , 1979 .

[107]  T. Madey,et al.  The adsorption of H2O on Ni(111); influence of preadsorbed oxygen on azimuthal ordering , 1982 .

[108]  T. Madey,et al.  The surface chemistry of H2O on clean and oxygen-covered Cu(110) , 1984 .

[109]  R. P. Frankenthal,et al.  Corrosion of Electronic Materials and Devices , 1986, Science.

[110]  C. Rao,et al.  An eels study of water, methanol, formaldehyde and formic acid adsorbed on clean and oxygen-covered zinc (0001) surfaces , 1986 .

[111]  K. Klier,et al.  Adsorption of Water on Well-Characterized Solid Surfaces , 1975 .

[112]  K. Jacobi,et al.  Electron scattering and adsorption kinetics of Ar, Kr, Xe, H2, N2, O2, CO and H2O on Ni(110) determined by ARUPS , 1983 .

[113]  V. Smith.  Theoretical Determination and Analysis of Electronic Charge Distributions , 1977 .

[114]  B. Conway,et al.  The electrochemical study of multiple-state adsorption in monolayers , 1981 .

[115]  A. Baró,et al.  The adsorption of H2O on Fe(100) studied by EELS , 1982 .

[116]  D. O. Harris,et al.  Laser spectroscopy of the A-X transitions of CaOH and CaOD , 1983 .

[117]  F. J. Szalkowski.  Evidence for a molecular intermediate during the oxidation of aluminum by water , 1982 .

[118]  P. Kollman,et al.  Electronic structure of Li–H2O and related neutral molecular complexes, including Al–H2O , 1978 .

[119]  D. R. Lloyd,et al.  The photoelectron spectra of the OH and OD radicals , 1977 .

[120]  T. Madey,et al.  H2O adsorption on oxygen-dosed Ni(110): Formation and orientation of OH(ad) , 1984 .

[121]  N. Lieske.  The electronic structure of semiconductor surfaces , 1984 .

[122]  A. Cho,et al.  Adsorption and desorption kinetics of Cu and Au on (0001) graphite , 1973 .

[123]  W. H. Weinberg,et al.  Monolayer and multilayer adsorption of water on Ru(001) , 1981 .

[124]  S. Semancik,et al.  Coadsorption of water and lithium on the Ru(001) surface , 1986 .

[125]  J. Falconer,et al.  The desorption kinetics of water and formic acid from Ni(110) following low-temperature adsorption , 1978 .

[126]  H. Papp,et al.  Face specificity of the H2O adsorption and decomposition on Co surfaces — a LEED, UPS, sp and TPD study , 1982 .

[127]  P. Stair.  The concept of Lewis acids and bases applied to surfaces , 1982 .

[128]  R. Hauge,et al.  Electron spin resonance studies of the reaction of lithium atoms with Lewis bases in argon matrices: formation of reactive intermediates. 1. Water and ammonia , 1978 .

[129]  G. Bond.  Catalysis By Metals , 1962 .

[130]  A. Winkler,et al.  Hydration of K and OH on Pt(111) during the adsorption of H2O at 100 K , 1985 .

[131]  W. H. Weinberg,et al.  Coadsorption of Oxygen and Water on Ru (001): Vibrational and Structural Properties , 1982 .

[132]  J. White,et al.  Adsorption of D2O on Ni(100) at 100 K and the influence of the coadsorbates O(a), CO(a) and D(a)☆ , 1984 .

[133]  D. O. Harris,et al.  High-resolution laser excitation spectra of linear triatomic molecules: Analysis of the B2Σ+-X2Σ+ system of SrOH and SrOD , 1983 .

[134]  George Butler,et al.  Corrosion and its prevention in waters , 1966 .

[135]  M. W. Roberts,et al.  Interaction of cobalt with oxygen, water vapor, and carbon monoxide: X-Ray and ultraviolet photoemission studies , 1977 .

[136]  Y. Peng,et al.  The adsorption, desorption, and exchange reactions of oxygen, hydrogen, and water on platinum surfaces. III. Water adsorption and exchange with oxygen and hydrogen , 1977 .

[137]  Walter Kauzmann,et al.  The Structure and Properties of Water , 1969 .

[138]  Noboru Yamazoe,et al.  Interactions of tin oxide surface with O2, H2O AND H2 , 1979 .

[139]  F. Franks,et al.  The Properties of Ice , 1972 .

[140]  G. Ghidini,et al.  Interaction of H 2 O with Si(111) and (100) Critical Conditions for the Growth of , 1984 .

[141]  M. L. Hair,et al.  Infrared spectroscopy in surface chemistry , 1967 .

[142]  K. Jacobi,et al.  The influence of dipoles in intermediate layers on the electronic levels of physisorbed species studied by UPS , 1982 .

[143]  P. A. Cox,et al.  The adsorption of water on tungsten bronze (001) surfaces: a study by HREELS and photoemission , 1983 .

[144]  M. Barteau,et al.  A photoelectron spectroscopic investigation of the interaction between H2O and oxygen on Ag(110) , 1984 .

[145]  T. Morimoto,et al.  Interaction of water molecules with the surface of tin(IV) oxide , 1978 .

[146]  M. Nishijima,et al.  Vibrational electron energy loss spectroscopy of the Si(111)(7×7)–H2O(D2O) system , 1986 .

[147]  M. Henzler,et al.  The adsorption of water vapor on clean cleaved germanium: II. Electrical properties , 1974 .

[148]  K. Heinzinger,et al.  Molecular dynamics simulation of a water/metal interface , 1986 .

[149]  J. Yates,et al.  The adsorption and thermal decomposition of water on clean and oxygen‐predosed Al(111) , 1987 .

[150]  T. Kawai,et al.  Photocatalytic decomposition of gaseous water over TiO2 and TiO2—RuO2 surfaces , 1980 .

[151]  W. Niessen.  Density localization of atomic and molecular orbitals , 1973 .

[152]  Hideaki Umeyama,et al.  The origin of hydrogen bonding. An energy decomposition study , 1977 .

[153]  L. Pauling.  The Nature Of The Chemical Bond , 1939 .

[154]  H. Ibach,et al.  The bonding of water molecules to platinum surfaces , 1980 .

[155]  S. Saha,et al.  Structure and reactions of H2O on clean and oxygen-covered Ni(111) surfaces , 1985 .

[156]  K. Fujiwara.  Localized bond model for H2O chemisorption on silicon surfaces , 1981 .

[157]  F. Wagner,et al.  Identification of surface hydronium: Coadsorption of hydrogen fluoride and water on platinum (111) , 1987 .

[158]  D. Eastman.  Geometrical and electronic structure of Si(001) and Si(111) surfaces: A status report , 1980 .

[159]  R. L. Tapping,et al.  A photoemission study of the interaction of Ni(100), (110) and (111) surfaces with oxygen , 1977 .

[160]  K. Jacobi,et al.  Site-specific interaction of H2O with ZnO single-crystal surfaces studied by thermal desorption and UV photoelectron spectroscopy , 1983 .

[161]  C. Webb,et al.  Formation of alternative surface oxide phases on GaAs by adsorption of O2 or H2O: A UPS, XPS, and SIMS study , 1982 .

[162]  William L. Jorgensen,et al.  The Organic Chemist's Book of Orbitals , 1973 .

[163]  P. Gennes.  Wetting: statics and dynamics , 1985 .

[164]  D. Dwyer,et al.  A LEED-AES study of the initial stages of oxidation of Fe (001) , 1975 .

[165]  C. Rao,et al.  Theory of Hydrogen Bonding in Water , 1972 .

[166]  R. Madix,et al.  The adsorption of H2O on clean and oxygen-covered pd(100): Formation and reaction of OH groups , 1984 .

[167]  B. J. Mason.  Clouds, rain, and rainmaking , 1962 .

[168]  D. Schmeißer,et al.  Adsorption of water on a cylindrical silicon crystal , 1985 .

[169]  M. Blomberg,et al.  The binding in neutral transition metal-water complexes , 1986 .

[170]  J. Davenport,et al.  Energy dependence of vibrational excitation of adsorbed CO and OH , 1978 .

[171]  Dau-Sing Y. Wang,et al.  Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy of water: Iniplications of the electromagnetic model , 1983 .

[172]  H. Lüth,et al.  Adsorption of water and methanol on GaAs(110) surfaces studied by ultraviolet photoemission , 1979 .

[173]  W. H. Weinberg,et al.  The chemisorption of hydrogen on Rh(111) , 1979 .

[174]  J. Dumesic,et al.  Migration of potassium on iron and alumina surfaces as studied by Auger electron spectroscopy , 1985 .

[175]  H. Neff,et al.  Towards model systems for the helmholtz layer: coadsorption of water and bromine on Cu(100) , 1980 .

[176]  J. Hrbek,et al.  The formation and decomposition of KOH on Ru(001) , 1984 .

[177]  J. Rabalais,et al.  Photoelectron Spectroscopy and Molecular Orbital Theory , 1979 .

[178]  V. Henrich.  The surfaces of metal oxides , 1985 .

[179]  Gabor A. Somorjai,et al.  The photodissociation of water by doped iron oxides: The unblased p/n assembly , 1984 .

[180]  T. Madey,et al.  Summary Abstract: The interaction of H2O with a Ti(001) surface as studied by photon stimulated desorption and ultraviolet photoemission spectroscopy , 1982 .

[181]  K. Fujiwara.  Electron orbital energies of H2S and H2O chemisorbed on the Si(111) 7×7 surface , 1981 .

[182]  A. Spitzer,et al.  The adsorption of water on clean and oxygen covered Cu(110) , 1982 .

[183]  A. W. Castleman,et al.  Nucleation and Molecular clustering about ions , 1979 .

[184]  G. Somorjai,et al.  Photocatalytic hydrogen production from water over SrTiO3 crystal surfaces, electron spectroscopy studies of adsorbed H2, O2 and H2O , 1980 .

[185]  M. Lin,et al.  Matrix isolation and laser diagnostic studies of catalytic oxidation of H2 and D2 on platinum , 1980 .

[186]  D. Dwyer,et al.  The water dissociation reaction on clean and oxidized iron (110) , 1982 .

[187]  P. Thiel,et al.  Displacement of cyclohexane by water on a ruthenium surface , 1986 .

[188]  H. Wagner,et al.  Dissociative chemisorption of H2O on Si(100) and Si(111) - a vibrational study , 1982 .

[189]  A. Castleman,et al.  The properties of ion clusters and their relationship to heteromolecular nucleation , 1978 .

[190]  W. H. Weinberg,et al.  The adsorption of water on the reconstructed Ir(110)-(1 × 2) surface , 1981 .

[191]  S. Andersson,et al.  Adsorption of water monomers on Cu(100) and Pd(100) at low temperatures , 1984 .

[192]  J. Harris,et al.  Cluster study of the interaction of a water molecule with an aluminium surface , 1984 .

[193]  J. White,et al.  A static sims study of H2O adsorption and reaction on clean and oxygen-covered Pt(111)+ , 1982 .

[194]  Robert P. Wei,et al.  A study of the initial reaction of water vapor with Fe(001) surface , 1977 .

[195]  J. Klett,et al.  Microphysics of Clouds and Precipitation , 1978, Nature.

[196]  G. Diercksen.  SCF-MO-LCGO studies on hydrogen bonding. The water dimer , 1971 .

[197]  S. Nornes,et al.  X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy study of the chemisorption of water on uranium and thorium and oxygen on uranium ☆ , 1979 .