Counting in Chinese: Cultural variation in a basic cognitive skill

Learning to count is an early and important cognitive accomplishment implicated in the development of later mathematical abilities. Research on the development of counting (e.g., Gelman & Gallistel, 1978 ) has focused on the way that children's understanding of number guides the task of learning to count. Because counting requires use of a number system, the features of a culture's particular numbering system could also impact the development of counting. The current research compared the developmental course of counting in two languages (English & Chinese) with somewhat divergent systems for forming number names. Large country differences generally favoring the Chinese subjects were found in children's ability to form proper number names and in the kinds of errors they make. The “teens” in English pose a particular stumbling block for American children's counting. Common sources of difficulty in counting across cultures were also found. In particular, children in both countries had difficulty with the need to coordinate incrementing units and decades lists in counting. In using counting as a tool to determine how many objects there are in a set, similar country differences were found. However, country effects in counting objects were found only for number-naming errors. Despite the difficulties American children have with mastering the English numbering system, there was no effect of country on the likelihood that children would skip or double count objects. Implications of these results for linguistic models of number generation for theories of the organization of complex skills and for later achievement differences in mathematics are discussed.