The Arctic Ocean marine carbon cycle: evaluation of air-sea CO 2 exchanges, ocean acidification impacts and potential feedbacks

Abstract. At present, although seasonal sea-ice cover mitigates atmosphere-ocean gas exchange, the Arctic Ocean takes up carbon dioxide (CO2) on the order of −66 to −199 Tg C year−1 (1012 g C), contributing 5–14% to the global balance of CO2 sinks and sources. Because of this, the Arctic Ocean has an important influence on the global carbon cycle, with the marine carbon cycle and atmosphere-ocean CO2 exchanges sensitive to Arctic Ocean and global climate change feedbacks. In the near-term, further sea-ice loss and increases in phytoplankton growth rates are expected to increase the uptake of CO2 by Arctic Ocean surface waters, although mitigated somewhat by surface warming in the Arctic. Thus, the capacity of the Arctic Ocean to uptake CO2 is expected to alter in response to environmental changes driven largely by climate. These changes are likely to continue to modify the physics, biogeochemistry, and ecology of the Arctic Ocean in ways that are not yet fully understood. In surface waters, sea-ice melt, river runoff, cooling and uptake of CO2 through air-sea gas exchange combine to decrease the calcium carbonate (CaCO3) mineral saturation states (Ω) of seawater while seasonal phytoplankton primary production (PP) mitigates this effect. Biological amplification of ocean acidification effects in subsurface waters, due to the remineralization of organic matter, is likely to reduce the ability of many species to produce CaCO3 shells or tests with profound implications for Arctic marine ecosystems

[1]  Larry P. Atkinson,et al.  Carbon and nutrient fluxes in continental margins : a global synthesis , 2010 .

[2]  Masson-Delmotte,et al.  The Physical Science Basis , 2007 .

[3]  M. Holland,et al.  Arctic sea ice decline: Faster than forecast , 2007 .

[4]  Richard A. Feely,et al.  Impacts of ocean acidification on marine fauna and ecosystem processes , 2008 .

[5]  Marika M. Holland,et al.  Perspectives on the Arctic's Shrinking Sea-Ice Cover , 2007, Science.

[6]  B. Delille CO2 in Seawater: Equilibrium, Kinetics, Isotopes , 2002 .

[7]  P. Stabeno,et al.  Erratum to: Modelling phytoplankton succession on the Bering Sea shelf: role of climate influences and trophic interactions in generating Emiliania huxleyi blooms 1997-2000 (Deep-Sea Research I, 51(12), 2004, 1803-1826) , 2005 .

[8]  K. Aagaard,et al.  A year in the physical oceanography of the Chukchi Sea: Moored measurements from autumn 1990–1991 , 2005 .

[9]  J. Hölemann,et al.  Inorganic carbon and nutrient fluxes on the Arctic Shelf , 2007 .

[10]  L. Anderson,et al.  On the origin of the chemical properties of the Arctic Ocean halocline , 1986 .

[11]  C. Pedrós-Alió,et al.  Winter-to-summer changes in the composition and single-cell activity of near-surface Arctic prokaryotes. , 2008, Environmental microbiology.

[12]  E. Nöthig,et al.  Tracing dissolved organic substances and nutrients from the Lena River through Laptev Sea (Arctic) , 1999 .

[13]  T. Dittmar,et al.  The biogeochemistry of the river and shelf ecosystem of the Arctic Ocean: a review , 2003 .

[14]  M. Gosselin,et al.  New measurements of phytoplankton and ice algal production in the Arctic Ocean , 1997 .

[15]  Donald J. Cavalieri,et al.  30‐Year satellite record reveals contrasting Arctic and Antarctic decadal sea ice variability , 2003 .

[16]  A. Olsen,et al.  Interannual variability in the wintertime air sea flux of carbon dioxide in the northern North Atlantic, 1981 2001 , 2003 .

[17]  N. Bates Interannual variability of the oceanic CO2 sink in the subtropical gyre of the North Atlantic Ocean over the last 2 decades , 2007 .

[18]  Jinlun Zhang,et al.  The arctic ice thickness anomaly of the 1990s: A consistent view from observations and models , 2003 .

[19]  D. Wolf-Gladrow,et al.  CO2 in Seawater: Equilibrium, Kinetics, Isotopes , 2001 .

[20]  R. Schmitt,et al.  Transport of freshwater by the oceans , 1992 .

[21]  Ken Caldeira,et al.  Ocean model predictions of chemistry changes from carbon dioxide emissions to the atmosphere and ocean , 2005 .

[22]  Florence Fetterer,et al.  Tracking the Arctic's shrinking ice cover: Another extreme September minimum in 2004 , 2005 .

[23]  R. Sambrotto,et al.  Large Yearly Production of Phytoplankton in the Western Bering Strait , 1984, Science.

[24]  R. Gerdes,et al.  Linking the northern hemisphere sea-ice reduction trend and the quasi-decadal arctic sea-ice oscillation , 2005 .

[25]  Nicholas R. Bates,et al.  Eddy transport of organic carbon and nutrients from the Chukchi Shelf : impact on the upper halocline of the western Arctic Ocean , 2007 .

[26]  J. M. Martin,et al.  A reassessment of the Eurasian river input of water, sediment, major elements, and nutrients to the Arctic Ocean , 1996 .

[27]  Andrew J. Watson,et al.  Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide , 2005 .

[28]  W. Balsam,et al.  Organic storage of CO2 on the continental slope off the mid-Atlantic bight, the southeastern Bering Sea, and the Peru coast , 1985 .

[29]  Dennis A. Hansell,et al.  Degradation of Terrigenous Dissolved Organic Carbon in the Western Arctic Ocean , 2004, Science.

[30]  M. Winton,et al.  Does the Arctic sea ice have a tipping point? , 2006 .

[31]  Nicholas R. Bates,et al.  An increasing CO2 sink in the Arctic Ocean due to sea‐ice loss , 2006 .

[32]  Acia Arctic Climate Impact Assessment - ACIA , 2005 .

[33]  Nicholas R. Bates,et al.  Net community production in the northeastern Chukchi Sea , 2009 .

[34]  N. Bond,et al.  On the temporal variability of the physical environment over the south-eastern Bering Sea , 2001 .

[35]  Cara Wilson,et al.  Using the nutrient ratio NO/PO as a tracer of continental shelf waters in the central Arctic Ocean , 1990 .

[36]  Koji Shimada,et al.  Aragonite Undersaturation in the Arctic Ocean: Effects of Ocean Acidification and Sea Ice Melt , 2009, Science.

[37]  M. J. Hameedi Aspects of water column primary productivity in the Chukchi Sea during summer , 1978 .

[38]  P. Haugan,et al.  A Nordic Seas–Arctic Ocean carbon budget from volume flows and inorganic carbon data , 1996 .

[39]  D. Hood,et al.  Impingement of man on the oceans , 1973 .

[40]  A. Borges Do we have enough pieces of the jigsaw to integrate CO2 fluxes in the coastal ocean? , 2005 .

[41]  Muyin Wang,et al.  Future regional Arctic sea ice declines , 2007 .

[42]  J. Tison,et al.  Biogas (CO2, O2, dimethylsulfide) dynamics in spring Antarctic fast ice , 2007 .

[43]  J. Gattuso,et al.  CARBON AND CARBONATE METABOLISM IN COASTAL AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS , 1998 .

[44]  C. J. Carrillo,et al.  Air-sea carbon dioxide exchange in the North Pacific subtropical Gyre: Implications for the global carbon budget , 1994 .

[45]  R. Feely,et al.  Winter-summer variations of calcite and aragonite saturation in the Northeast Pacific , 1988 .

[46]  R. Macdonald,et al.  The freshwater budget and under-ice spreading of Mackenzie River water in the Canadian Beaufort Sea based on salinity and18O/16O measurements in water and ice , 1995 .

[47]  A. Olsen,et al.  Sea‐Ice and brine formation in Storfjorden: Implications for the Arctic wintertime air—sea CO2 flux , 2013 .

[48]  John E. Walsh,et al.  Integrated regional changes in arctic climate feedbacks: Implications for the global climate system , 2006 .

[49]  J. Wallace,et al.  Variations in the age of Arctic sea‐ice and summer sea‐ice extent , 2004 .

[50]  Michael Steele,et al.  Retreat of the cold halocline layer in the Arctic Ocean , 1998 .

[51]  Seymour W. Laxon,et al.  Circumpolar thinning of Arctic sea ice following the 2007 record ice extent minimum , 2008 .

[52]  I. Dmitrenko,et al.  The long-term and interannual variability of summer fresh water storage over the eastern Siberian shelf: Implication for climatic change , 2008 .

[53]  J. Hölemann,et al.  Impact of flaw polynyas on the hydrography of the Laptev Sea , 2005 .

[54]  P. B. Duffy,et al.  Anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH , 2001 .

[55]  F. Millero,et al.  A comparison of the equilibrium constants for the dissociation of carbonic acid in seawater media , 1987 .

[56]  N. Bond,et al.  Recent shifts in the state of the North Pacific , 2003 .

[57]  John E. Walsh,et al.  Dipole Anomaly in the Winter Arctic Atmosphere and Its Association with Sea Ice Motion , 2006 .

[58]  E. Sakshaug Primary and Secondary Production in the Arctic Seas , 2004 .

[59]  R. Macdonald,et al.  Fresh water and its sources during the SHEBA drift in the Canada Basin of the Arctic Ocean , 2002 .

[60]  D. Barber,et al.  Vertical stability and the annual dynamics of nutrients and chlorophyll fluorescence in the coastal, southeast Beaufort Sea , 2008 .

[61]  R. Macdonald,et al.  Using the composition in landfast ice as a record of arctic estuarine processes , 1999 .

[62]  S. Nakaoka,et al.  Temporal and spatial variations of oceanic pCO2 and air–sea CO2 flux in the Greenland Sea and the Barents Sea , 2006 .

[63]  H. Melling The formation of a haline shelf front in wintertime in an ice-covered arctic sea , 1993 .

[64]  Nicolas Gruber,et al.  The Oceanic Sink for Anthropogenic CO2 , 2004, Science.

[65]  Marika M. Holland,et al.  Future abrupt reductions in the summer Arctic sea ice , 2006 .

[66]  John J. Walsh,et al.  Importance of continental margins in the marine biogeochemical cycling of carbon and nitrogen , 1991, Nature.

[67]  I. Semiletov,et al.  Carbonate chemistry dynamics in Bering Strait and the Chukchi Sea , 2002 .

[68]  Andrew J. Watson,et al.  Corrigendum to Climatological mean and decadal change in surface ocean pCO2, and net sea―air CO2 flux over the global oceans , 2009 .

[69]  R. Benner,et al.  Export of young terrigenous dissolved organic carbon from rivers to the Arctic Ocean , 2004 .

[70]  Mark L. Green,et al.  Coastal Acidification by Rivers: A Threat to Shellfish? , 2008 .

[71]  R. Wanninkhof Relationship between wind speed and gas exchange over the ocean , 1992 .

[72]  I. Semiletov,et al.  Carbonate chemistry dynamics and carbon dioxide fluxes across the atmosphere–ice–water interfaces in the Arctic Ocean: Pacific sector of the Arctic , 2007 .

[73]  J. Swift,et al.  The role of the large-scale Arctic Ocean circulation in the transport of contaminants , 1995 .

[74]  M. Yamamoto‐Kawai,et al.  Freshwater and brine behaviors in the Arctic Ocean deduced from historical data of δ18O and alkalinity (1929–2002 A.D.) , 2005 .

[75]  P. Stabeno,et al.  Modelling phytoplankton succession on the Bering Sea shelf: role of climate influences and trophic interactions in generating Emiliania huxleyi blooms 1997 2000 , 2004 .

[76]  K. Koltermann,et al.  Water masses and circulation in the Eurasian Basin: Results from the Oden 91 expedition , 1994 .

[77]  Leif G. Anderson,et al.  Carbon fluxes in the Arctic Ocean—potential impact by climate change , 2001 .

[78]  E. Carmack,et al.  Wind‐driven shelf/basin exchange on an Arctic shelf: The joint roles of ice cover extent and shelf‐break bathymetry , 2003 .

[79]  C. Sweeney,et al.  Global sea-air CO2 flux based on climatological surface ocean pCO2, and seasonal biological and temperature effects , 2002 .

[80]  R. B. Tripp,et al.  Bering Strait the Regional Physical Oceanography , 1975 .

[81]  E. Carmack,et al.  The role of sea ice and other fresh water in the Arctic circulation , 1989 .

[82]  Elizabeth H. Sinclair,et al.  Climate change and control of the southeastern Bering Sea pelagic ecosystem , 2002 .

[83]  M. Chierici,et al.  Anthropogenic carbon dioxide in the Arctic Ocean: Inventory and sinks , 1998 .

[84]  Dennis A. Hansell,et al.  Linkages among Runoff, Dissolved Organic Carbon, and the Stable Oxygen Isotope Composition of Seawater and Other Water Mass Indicators in the Arctic Ocean , 2005 .

[85]  Alberto Borges,et al.  Reconciling opposing views on carbon cycling in the coastal ocean: Continental shelves as sinks and near-shore ecosystems as sources of atmospheric CO2 , 2009 .

[86]  J. Francis,et al.  The Arctic Amplification Debate , 2006 .

[87]  Akihiko Murata,et al.  Summertime CO2 sinks in shelf and slope waters of the western Arctic Ocean , 2003 .

[88]  D. Wallace,et al.  Tracers of near-surface, halocline and deep waters in the Arctic Ocean: implications for circulation , 1991 .

[89]  Kimio Hanawa,et al.  Observations: Oceanic Climate Change and Sea Level , 2007 .

[90]  L. Mysak,et al.  Sea-ice anomalies observed in the Greenland and Labrador seas during 1901–1984 and their relation to an interdecadal Arctic climate cycle , 1990 .

[91]  J. Swift,et al.  Pacific freshwater, river water and sea ice meltwater across Arctic Ocean basins: Results from the 2005 Beringia Expedition , 2008 .

[92]  D. Barber,et al.  On thin ice : a synthesis of the Canadian Arctic Shelf Exchange Study (CASES) , 2008 .

[93]  K. Caldeira,et al.  Oceanography: Anthropogenic carbon and ocean pH , 2003, Nature.

[94]  Douglas M. Smith Recent increase in the length of the melt season of perennial Arctic sea ice , 1998 .

[95]  F. Millero,et al.  The dissociation constants of carbonic acid in seawater at salinities 5 to 45 and temperatures 0 to 45°C , 1993 .

[96]  Dennis A. Hansell,et al.  Patterns of nitrate utilization and new production over the Bering-Chukchi shelf , 1993 .

[97]  A. Mucci The solubility of calcite and aragonite in seawater at various salinities , 1983 .

[98]  E. Carmack,et al.  Pacific Ocean inflow: Influence on catastrophic reduction of sea ice cover in the Arctic Ocean , 2006 .

[99]  Ron Lindsay,et al.  The thinning of Arctic sea ice, 1988-2003 : Have we passed a tipping point? , 2005 .

[100]  K. Hunkins,et al.  Mesoscale eddies of the Arctic Ocean , 1985 .

[101]  Liqi Chen,et al.  Spatial variability in the partial pressures of CO2 in the northern Bering and Chukchi seas , 2007 .

[102]  S. Solomon The Physical Science Basis : Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , 2007 .

[103]  Josefino C. Comiso,et al.  Accelerated decline in the Arctic sea ice cover , 2008 .

[104]  M. Chierici,et al.  The importance of shelf processes for the modification of chemical constituents in the waters of the Eurasian Arctic Ocean: implication for carbon fluxes , 2001 .

[105]  C. Guay,et al.  Barium as a tracer of Arctic halocline and river waters , 1997 .

[106]  M. Chierici,et al.  Calcium carbonate saturation in the surface water of the Arctic Ocean: undersaturation in freshwater influenced shelves , 2009 .

[107]  J. Walsh,et al.  Arctic Contribution to Upper-Ocean Variability in the North Atlantic , 1990 .

[108]  Leif G. Anderson,et al.  A carbon budget for the Arctic Ocean , 1998 .

[109]  Glenn F. Cota,et al.  Spatial patterns of primary production on the shelf, slope and basin of the Western Arctic in 2002 , 2005 .

[110]  R. Feely,et al.  Ocean acidification: the other CO2 problem. , 2009, Annual review of marine science.

[111]  I. Skjelvan,et al.  Interannual variability of f CO 2 in the Greenland and Norwegian Seas , 1999 .

[112]  Nicholas R. Bates,et al.  Spatio-temporal distribution of dissolved inorganic carbon and net community production in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas , 2005 .

[113]  Agneta Fransson,et al.  Uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide in the Barents Sea , 2002 .

[114]  J. Kelley CARBON DIOXIDE IN THE SURFACE WATERS OF THE NORTH ATLANTIC OCEAN AND THE BARENTS AND KARA SEAS1 , 1970 .

[115]  S. Saitoh,et al.  Variability in the Bering Sea ecosystem , 2002 .

[116]  P. Schlosser,et al.  An Arctic Ocean cold core eddy , 2000 .

[117]  Dennis A. Hansell,et al.  Seasonal and interannual changes in particulate organic carbon export and deposition in the Chukchi Sea , 2007 .

[118]  C. Culberson,et al.  MEASUREMENT OF THE APPARENT DISSOCIATION CONSTANTS OF CARBONIC ACID IN SEAWATER AT ATMOSPHERIC PRESSURE1 , 1973 .

[119]  Thomas J. Weingartner,et al.  Direct measurements of transport and water properties through the Bering Strait , 1995 .

[120]  Leif G. Anderson,et al.  Formation and evolution of the surface mixed layer and halocline of the Arctic Ocean , 1996 .

[121]  S. Doney,et al.  The dangers of ocean acidification. , 2006, Scientific American.

[122]  Thomas J. Weingartner,et al.  Monthly temperature, salinity, and transport variability of the Bering Strait through flow , 2005 .

[123]  Walter B. Tucker,et al.  2 – Sea Ice in the Polar Regions , 1990 .

[124]  Lee W. Cooper,et al.  Flow‐weighted values of runoff tracers (δ18O, DOC, Ba, alkalinity) from the six largest Arctic rivers , 2008 .

[125]  R. Macdonald,et al.  Oceanography of the Canadian Shelf of the Beaufort Sea: A Setting for Marine Life , 2002 .

[126]  T. Platt,et al.  Primary production of arctic waters , 2004, Polar Biology.

[127]  Octavio Llinás,et al.  The interannual variability of oceanic CO2 parameters in the northeast Atlantic subtropical gyre at the ESTOC site , 2007 .

[128]  R. Feely,et al.  Evidence for Upwelling of Corrosive "Acidified" Water onto the Continental Shelf , 2008, Science.

[129]  A. Robinson,et al.  The global coastal ocean : multiscale interdisciplinary processes , 2005 .

[130]  R. Pickart,et al.  The western Arctic boundary current at 152°W: Structure, variability, and transport , 2009 .

[131]  D. C. Burrell,et al.  Chemical characteristics of water masses in the Amerasian Basin of the Arctic Ocean , 1970 .

[132]  John E. Walsh,et al.  Recent Variations of Sea Ice and Air Temperature in High Latitudes , 1993 .

[133]  D. White,et al.  Characterization of Siberian Arctic coastal sediments: Implications for terrestrial organic carbon export , 2004 .

[134]  K. Arrigo,et al.  Primary production in the Arctic Ocean, 1998–2006 , 2008 .

[135]  M. Lipizer,et al.  Tracing Pacific water in the North Atlantic Ocean , 2003 .

[136]  Richard A. Feely,et al.  Impact of Anthropogenic CO2 on the CaCO3 System in the Oceans , 2004, Science.

[137]  I. Skjelvan,et al.  Interannual variability of fCO2 in the Greenland and Norwegian Seas , 1999 .

[138]  David L. Kirchman,et al.  Active cycling of organic carbon in the central Arctic Ocean , 1996, Nature.

[139]  Taro Takahashi,et al.  Seasonal variation of CO2 and nutrients in the high-latitude surface oceans: A comparative study , 1993 .

[140]  P. Minnett,et al.  The Northeast Water Polynya as an atmospheric CO2 sink: A seasonal rectification hypothesis , 1995 .

[141]  L. Anderson,et al.  The saturation of calcite and aragonite in the Arctic Ocean , 2005 .

[142]  M. Spall,et al.  Western Arctic Shelfbreak Eddies : Formation and Transport , 2008 .

[143]  Kevin R. Arrigo,et al.  Impact of a shrinking Arctic ice cover on marine primary production , 2008 .

[144]  Wade R. McGillis,et al.  A cubic relationship between air‐sea CO2 exchange and wind speed , 1999 .

[145]  Paul Wassmann,et al.  Food webs and physical–biological coupling on pan-Arctic shelves: Unifying concepts and comprehensive perspectives ☆ , 2006 .

[146]  A. Semtner,et al.  On large-scale shifts in the Arctic Ocean and sea-ice conditions during 1979−98 , 2001, Annals of Glaciology.

[147]  Rüdiger Gerdes,et al.  The Nordic seas : an integrated perspective ; oceanography, climatology, biogeochemistry, and modeling , 2005 .

[148]  R. Bacastow,et al.  Atmospheric carbon dioxide and radiocarbon in the natural carbon cycle: II. Changes from A. D. 1700 to 2070 as deduced from a geochemical model. , 1973, Brookhaven symposia in biology.

[149]  A. Olsen,et al.  Seasonal and interannual variability of the air-sea CO2 flux in the Atlantic sector of the Barents Sea , 2007 .

[150]  Leif G. Anderson,et al.  An assessment of the transport of atmospheric CO2 into the Arctic Ocean , 1990 .

[151]  L. Anderson,et al.  Nutrient regeneration in cold, high salinity bottom water of the Arctic shelves , 1988 .

[152]  W. Oechel,et al.  Observational Evidence of Recent Change in the Northern High-Latitude Environment , 2000 .

[153]  Leif G. Anderson,et al.  Deep waters of the Arctic Ocean : origin and circulation , 1995 .

[154]  Göran Björk,et al.  A One-Dimensional Time-Dependent Model for the Vertical Stratification of the Upper Arctic Ocean , 1989 .

[155]  Thomas J. Weingartner,et al.  The Siberian Coastal Current: A wind‐ and buoyancy‐forced Arctic coastal current , 1999 .

[156]  C. Lovejoy,et al.  Importance of particle-associated bacterial heterotrophy in a coastal Arctic ecosystem , 2009 .

[157]  F. Joos,et al.  Imminent ocean acidification in the Arctic projected with the NCAR global coupled carbon cycle-climate model , 2009 .

[158]  L. Anderson,et al.  Input and biogeochemical transformation of dissolved carbon in the Siberian shelf seas , 1997 .

[159]  Peter Winsor,et al.  Polynya activity in the Arctic Ocean from 1958 to 1997 , 2000 .

[160]  Andrew J. Watson,et al.  Corrigendum to "Climatological mean and decadal change in surface ocean pCO2, and net sea-air CO2 flux over the global oceans" [Deep Sea Res. II 56 (2009) 554-577] , 2009 .

[161]  N. Bates Air-sea CO2 fluxes and the continental shelf pump of carbon in the Chukchi Sea adjacent to the Arctic Ocean , 2006 .

[162]  Pomeroy,et al.  Nutrients, primary production and microbial heterotrophy in the southeastern Chukchi Sea : Arctic summer nutrient depletion and heterotrophy , 1996 .

[163]  Barbara Goss Levi,et al.  The decreasing Arctic ice cover , 2000 .

[164]  G. Cauwet,et al.  The biogeochemistry of Lena River: organic carbon and nutrients distribution , 1996 .

[165]  Andrew G. Dickson,et al.  Guide to best practices for ocean CO2 measurements , 2007 .

[166]  I. Polyakov,et al.  Variability of the Intermediate Atlantic Water of the Arctic Ocean over the Last 100 Years , 2004 .

[167]  L. Merlivat,et al.  The influence of short‐term wind variability on air‐sea CO2 exchange , 2001 .

[168]  Donald J. Cavalieri,et al.  The contribution of Alaskan, Siberian, and Canadian coastal polynyas to the cold halocline layer of the Arctic Ocean , 1994 .

[169]  Dieter Piepenburg,et al.  Recent research on Arctic benthos: common notions need to be revised , 2005, Polar Biology.

[170]  J. Andrews,et al.  Arctic oceanography : marginal ice zones and continental shelves , 1995 .

[171]  Dennis A. Hansell,et al.  Determining net dissolved organic carbon production in the hydrographically complex western Arctic Ocean , 2007 .

[172]  L. Codispoti,et al.  Hydrographic conditions during the 2002 SBI process experiments , 2005 .

[173]  Leif G. Anderson,et al.  Uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide in Arctic shelf seas: evaluation of the relative importance of processes that influence pCO2 in water transported over the Bering–Chukchi Sea shelf , 2005 .

[174]  Agneta Fransson,et al.  New insights into the spatial variability of the surface water carbon dioxide in varying sea ice conditions in the Arctic Ocean , 2009 .

[175]  Wei-Jun Cai,et al.  Comment on "Enhanced Open Ocean Storage of CO2 from Shelf Sea Pumping" , 2004, Science.

[176]  C. S. Wong,et al.  Climatological mean and decadal change in surface ocean pCO2, and net seaair CO2 flux over the global oceans , 2009 .

[177]  Ruediger Stein,et al.  The organic carbon cycle in the Arctic Ocean , 2004 .

[178]  Jinlun Zhang,et al.  Arctic Ocean sea ice volume: What explains its recent depletion? , 2005 .

[179]  Kathleen F. Jones,et al.  Increasing solar heating of the Arctic Ocean and adjacent seas, 1979–2005: Attribution and role in the ice‐albedo feedback , 2007 .

[180]  J. Wallace,et al.  Response of Sea Ice to the Arctic Oscillation , 2002 .

[181]  J. Napp,et al.  Interannual and decadal variability in zooplankton communities of the southeast Bering Sea shelf , 2002 .

[182]  G. Moore,et al.  Upwelling on the continental slope of the Alaskan Beaufort Sea: Storms, ice, and oceanographic response , 2009 .

[183]  Lawrence J. Pratt,et al.  Flow of winter-transformed Pacific water into the Western Arctic , 2005 .

[184]  B. Delille,et al.  Budgeting sinks and sources of CO2 in the coastal ocean: Diversity of ecosystems counts , 2005 .

[185]  I. Semiletov,et al.  AQUATIC SOURCES AND SINKS OF CO2 AND CH4 IN THE POLAR REGIONS , 1999 .

[186]  F. Millero Thermodynamics of the carbon dioxide system in the oceans , 1995 .

[187]  Muyin Wang,et al.  The Arctic climate paradox: The recent decrease of the Arctic Oscillation , 2005 .

[188]  James T. Hollibaugh,et al.  Coastal metabolism and the oceanic organic carbon balance , 1993 .

[189]  J. Kelley,et al.  Gas movement through sea ice , 1976, Nature.

[190]  K. Aagaard,et al.  Revising the Bering Strait freshwater flux into the Arctic Ocean , 2005 .

[191]  Chen Liqi,et al.  Investigations on distributions and fluxes of sea-air CO2 of the expedition areas in the Arctic Ocean , 2003 .

[192]  Michael P. Meredith,et al.  The large‐scale freshwater cycle of the Arctic , 2006 .

[193]  D. Wolf-Gladrow,et al.  Calcium carbonate as ikaite crystals in Antarctic sea ice , 2008 .

[194]  J. Hurrell,et al.  The Arctic Ocean Response to the North Atlantic Oscillation , 2000 .

[195]  C. Goyet,et al.  New determination of carbonic acid dissociation constants in seawater as a function of temperature and salinity , 1989 .

[196]  Dennis A. Hansell,et al.  Seasonal and spatial distribution of particulate organic matter (POM) in the Chukchi and Beaufort Seas , 2005 .

[197]  Edgar L. Andreas,et al.  Atmospheric CO2 balance: The role of Arctic sea ice , 2004 .

[198]  Taro Takahashi,et al.  Calcium carbonate precipitation on the Bahama Banks , 1966 .

[199]  A. Knap,et al.  Seasonal and interannual variability of oceanic carbon dioxide species at the U.S. JGOFS Bermuda Atlantic Time-series Study (BATS) site , 1996 .

[200]  J. Swift,et al.  Enhanced uptake of atmospheric CO2 during freezing of seawater: A field study in Storfjorden, Svalbard , 2004 .

[201]  L. Anderson,et al.  Ventilation of the Arctic Ocean estimated by a plume entrainment model constrained by CFCs , 1999 .

[202]  E. Maier‐Reimer,et al.  Anthropogenic ocean acidification over the twenty-first century and its impact on calcifying organisms , 2005, Nature.

[203]  William J. Emery,et al.  On the Arctic climate paradox and the continuing role of atmospheric circulation in affecting sea ice conditions , 2007 .

[204]  P. Christensen,et al.  Inorganic carbon transport during sea ice growth and decay : A carbon pump in polar seas , 2007 .

[205]  Muyin Wang,et al.  The recent Arctic warm period , 2007 .

[206]  T. Wilbanks,et al.  Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change , 2007 .

[207]  W. Budgell,et al.  Mass and heat transports in the NE Barents Sea: Observations and models , 2009 .

[208]  W. Cai,et al.  Air‐sea exchange of carbon dioxide in ocean margins: A province‐based synthesis , 2006 .

[209]  N. Bates,et al.  Ocean acidification and biologically induced seasonality of carbonate mineral saturation states in the western Arctic Ocean , 2009 .

[210]  S. Häkkinen An Arctic source for the great salinity anomaly: A simulation of the Arctic ice‐ocean system for 1955–1975 , 1993 .

[211]  D. Kadko,et al.  The source of the high heat and freshwater content of the upper ocean at the SHEBA site in the Beaufort Sea in 1997 , 2004 .

[212]  P. Winsor,et al.  Pathways of Pacific water across the Chukchi Sea: A numerical model study , 2004 .

[213]  F. G. Stehli,et al.  The Arctic Ocean , 1981 .

[214]  Yann Bozec,et al.  Enhanced Open Ocean Storage of CO2 from Shelf Sea Pumping , 2004, Science.

[215]  D. Cavalieri,et al.  Circulation on the north central Chukchi Sea shelf , 2005 .

[216]  W. Tucker,et al.  The 1994 Arctic Ocean Section. The First Major Scientific Crossing of the Arctic Ocean , 1996 .

[217]  A. P. Nagurnyi On the role of the Arctic sea ice in seasonal variability of carbon dioxide concentration in Northern latitudes , 2008 .

[218]  J. Yackel,et al.  Observations of sea surface fCO2 distributions and estimated air‐sea CO2 fluxes in the Hudson Bay region (Canada) during the open water season , 2008 .

[219]  H. L. Miller,et al.  Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis , 2007 .

[220]  Claire Parkinson Variability of Arctic Sea Ice: The View from Space, An 18-year Record , 2000 .

[221]  A. Olsen,et al.  Anthropogenic increase of oceanic pCO2 in the Barents Sea surface water , 2003 .

[222]  Douglas W.R. Wallace,et al.  Ventilation of the Arctic Ocean cold halocline: rates of diapycnal and isopycnal transport, oxygen utilization and primary production inferred using chlorofluoromethane distributions , 1987 .

[223]  Andrew G. Dickson,et al.  Handbook of methods for the analysis of the various parameters of the carbon dioxide system in sea water. Version 2 , 1994 .

[224]  A. Borges,et al.  Enhanced ocean carbon storage from anaerobic alkalinity generation in coastal sediments , 2008 .

[225]  E. Carmack,et al.  On the halocline of the Arctic Ocean , 1981 .

[226]  Donald J. Cavalieri,et al.  Circulation, dense water formation, and outflow on the northeast Chukchi Shelf , 1998 .

[227]  A. Dickson Thermodynamics of the dissociation of boric acid in synthetic seawater from 273.15 to 318.15 K , 1990 .

[228]  D. Wallace,et al.  Ventilation of the Arctic Ocean: Mean ages and inventories of anthropogenic CO2 and CFC‐11 , 2009 .

[229]  Scott C. Doney,et al.  Ocean acidification: the other CO2 problem. , 2009, Annual review of marine science.

[230]  Variability of physical and chemical characteristics along the 70-m isobath of the southeastern Bering Sea , 2002 .

[231]  R. Benner,et al.  Major flux of terrigenous dissolved organic matter through the Arctic Ocean , 1999 .

[232]  Richard B. Lammers,et al.  Increasing River Discharge to the Arctic Ocean , 2002, Science.

[233]  N. Bates,et al.  The contribution of atmospheric acid deposition to ocean acidification in the subtropical North Atlantic Ocean , 2007 .

[234]  G. Bigg,et al.  Impact of flow through the Canadian Archipelago and Bering Strait on the North Atlantic and Arctic circulation: An ocean modelling study , 2002 .