The Organization of Human Arm Trajectory Control

Traditionally, studies of human and animal movements have focused on systems composed of a single muscle, or a single joint. However, most natural human actions such as reaching, walking, writing, etc., require coordination among a large number of muscles and joints. Although the excess degrees of freedom problem, also known as Bernstein’s problem (Bernstein, 1967), arises even in the context of single-joint movements, it becomes especially complicated to resolve in the multi-joint case.

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