THE INTEGRATION OF CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF

The desirability of integrating chemical and biological control of arthro­ pod pests is not a new idea in the field of applied entomology. Recurrently over the years, investigators have expressed a need for the preservation, augmentation, and utilization of entomophagous and entomogenous organ­ isms in overall pest control programs involving chemical control (14, 34, 63, 69, 70, 76, 77, 88, 109, 116, 117, 119). However, these were sporadic pleas and it was not until the last decade that the call for integrated control swelled to a chorus. Now, a band wagon of rather respectable proportions seems to have developed in support of this approach to arthropod pest con­ trol. As a point of illustration, in the most recent numbers of the Journal of Economic Entomology, a significant percentage of the articles have dealt with or alluded to integrated control. (Six of 51 papers in Volume 54, No.1.) The factors contributing to this trend seem directly related to the mani­ fol d secondary problems associated with the extensive use of the new, widely toxic synthetic organic insecticides. Prior to the organic insecticide era, entomologists working with the arsenicals, botanicals, petroleum oils, lime sulfur, and the few other materials available to them, inadvertently effected large-scale integrated control. This came about because the methods of entry and chemical and physical characteristics of these materials limited their toxicity to a relatively small number of arthropods, and they did not have the disruptive effects to arthropod ecosystems that the new broad spectrum synthetic chemicals do. As a result, the problems of insecticide resistance, pest flarebacks, and secondary pest outbreaks that have come to plague the organic insecticides were not nearly as severe and general as they are today. Consequently, there was no great concern over, or even aware­ ness of the potential disruptiveness of insecticides to arthropod ecosystems. Thus, with little reason for apprehension other than matter s related to mammalian toxicity, pollinator mortality, and possibly resistance, the organic insecticides were almost universally accepted as unmixed blessings. With rare exceptions, those persons associated with arthropod pest control crossed

[1]  A. W. Morrill.  Notes on the use of Nicoting Dusts , 1921 .

[2]  W. R. Thompson.  THE PRINCIPLES OF BIOLOGICAL CONTROL , 1930 .

[3]  C. Clausen,et al.  Insect Parasitism and Biological Control , 1936 .

[4]  A. M. Boyce.  The Citrus Red Mite Paratetranychus CitriMcG. In California, and Its Control , 1936 .

[5]  S. Flanders,et al.  Environmental Resistance to the Establishment of Parasitic Hymenoptera. , 1940 .

[6]  G. N. Wolcott.  The Establishment in Puerto Rico of Larra americana Saussure , 1941 .

[7]  S. Flanders.  Dust as an Inhibiting Factor in the Reproduction of Insects , 1941 .

[8]  G. N. Wolcott.  THE REQUIREMENTS OF PARASITES FOR MORE THAN HOSTS. , 1942, Science.

[9]  S. Flanders.  Metaphycus helvolus, an Encyrtid Parasite of the Black Scale , 1942 .

[10]  J. Holloway,et al.  The Influence of Fungicidal Sprays on Entomogenous Fungi and on the Purple Scale in Florida , 1943 .

[11]  Ray F. Smith,et al.  Some natural factors limiting the abundance of the alfalfa butterfly , 1943 .

[12]  W. Ripper.  Biological Control as a Supplement to Chemical Control of Insect Pests , 1944, Nature.

[13]  R. Walton,et al.  Effects of Nicotine Dust on the Melon Aphis and Its Natural Enemies , 1944 .

[14]  S. Flanders.  Coincident Infestations of Aonidiella citrina and Coccus hesperidum, a Result of Ant Activity , 1945 .

[15]  F. T. Lord.  THE INFLUENCE OF SPRAY PROGRAMS ON THE FAUNA OF APPLE ORCHARDS IN NOVA SCOTIA: II. OYSTERSHELL SCALE: Lepidosaphes ulmi (L.) , 1947, The Canadian Entomologist.

[16]  A. D. Pickett.  The philosophy of orchard insect control. , 1948 .

[17]  E. Steinhaus.  Polyhedrosis, (“Wilt Disease”) of the Alfalfa Caterpillar , 1948 .

[18]  F. Lieberman,et al.  Field Studies of the Alfalfa Weevil and Its Environment , 1949 .

[19]  E. Steinhaus,et al.  Preliminary field tests using a polyhedrosis virus to control the alfalfa caterpillar. , 1949, Journal of economic entomology.

[20]  W. Ripper,et al.  Combined Chemical and Biological Control of Insects by Means of a Systemic Insecticide , 1949, Nature.

[21]  F. T. Lord.  The Influence of Spray Programs on the Fauna of Apple Orchards in Nova Scotia. III. Mites and their Predators , 1949 .

[22]  A. D. Pickett.  A Critique on Insect Chemical Control Methods , 1949 .

[23]  A. Michelbacher,et al.  Control of the Melon Aphid in Northern California , 1950 .

[24]  E. Steinhaus,et al.  Further tests using a polyhedrosis virus to control the alfalfa caterpillar. , 1950 .

[25]  T. Nishida,et al.  Applied Ecology in Melon Fly Control , 1950 .

[26]  R. Doutt,et al.  Biological control measures applied against Pseudococcus maritimus on pears. , 1950 .

[27]  P. Debach,et al.  Effects of Insecticides on Biological Control of Insect Pests of Citrus , 1951 .

[28]  E. Steinhaus.  Possible use of Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner as an aid in the biological control of the alfalfa caterpillar , 1951 .

[29]  R. H. Painter,et al.  Insect resistance in crop plants. , 1951 .

[30]  C. Thompson.  Field Tests During 1950 Using a Polyhedrosis Virus to Control the Alfalfa Caterpillar , 1951 .

[31]  P. Debach.  The Necessity for an Ecological Approach to Pest Control on Citrus in California , 1951 .

[32]  B. Bartlett,et al.  Effect of Parathion on Parasites of Coccus hesperidum , 1951 .

[33]  C. A. Fleschner,et al.  A Biological Check Method for Evaluating the Effectiveness of Entomophagous Insects , 1951 .

[34]  G. C. Ullyett.  Insects, Man and the Environment , 1951 .

[35]  J. Wille.  Biological Control of Certain Cotton Insects and the Application of New Organic Insecticides in Perú , 1951 .

[36]  G. Hartley,et al.  Selective Insecticides and Biological Control , 1951 .

[37]  J. T. Griffiths.  Possibilities for Better Citrus Insect Control Through the Study of the Ecological Effects of Spray Programs , 1951 .

[38]  B. Bartlett,et al.  Relation between Natural Enemies and DDT-Induced Increases in Frosted Scale and Other Pests of Walnuts , 1952 .

[39]  L. Jeppson,et al.  Timing of Treatments for Control of Citrus Red Mite on Orange Trees in Coastal Districts of California , 1953 .

[40]  E. Klostermeyer,et al.  The Effect of Soil Insecticide Treatments on Mite Population and Damage12 , 1953 .

[41]  A. D. Pickett,et al.  The Influence of Spray Programs on the Fauna of Apple Orchards in Nova Scotia. IV. A Review , 1953, The Canadian Entomologist.

[42]  C. B. Huffaker,et al.  Developments Toward Biological Control of Cyclamen Mite on Strawberries in California , 1953 .

[43]  E. Steinhaus.  The effects of disease on insect populations , 1954 .

[44]  Ray F. Smith,et al.  Insect Control and the Balance of Nature , 1954 .

[45]  A. Michelbacher.  Natural Control of Insect Pests , 1954 .

[46]  R. Glen.  Factors that Affect Insect Abundance , 1954 .

[47]  W. Hayes.  Agricultural chemicals and public health. , 1954, Public health reports.

[48]  T. Nishida.  Further Studies on the Treatment of Border Vegetation for Melon Fly Control , 1954 .

[49]  T. Taylor.  BIOLOGICAL CONTROL OF INSECT PESTS , 1955 .

[50]  P. Debach.  Validity of the Insecticidal Check Method as a Measure of the Effectiveness of Natural Enemies of Diaspine Scale Insects1 , 1955 .

[51]  F. J. Simmonds.  The Present Status of Biological Control , 1956, The Canadian Entomologist.

[52]  W. M. Hoskins,et al.  Arthropod Resistance to Chemicals , 1956 .

[53]  W. Ripper,et al.  Effect of Pesticides on Balance of Arthropod Populations , 1956 .

[54]  E. Linsley.  Evaluation of certain acaricides and insecticides for effectiveness, residues, and influence on crop flavor , 1956 .

[55]  C. B. Huffaker,et al.  Experimental Studies on Predation: Predation and Cyclamen-mite Populations on Strawberries in California. , 1956 .

[56]  J. Crow.  Genetics of Insect Resistance to Chemicals , 1957 .

[57]  E. Atkins,et al.  The Omnivorous Leaf Roller, Platynota stultana Wlshm., on Cotton in Southern California: Damage and Control , 1957 .

[58]  C. A. Fleschner,et al.  Effect of Soil-Type and DDT on Ovipositonal Response of Chrysopa californica (Coq.) on Lemon Trees , 1957 .

[59]  J. Robertson.  CHANGES IN RESISTANCE TO DDT IN MACROCENTRUS ANCYLIVORUS ROHW. (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) , 1957 .

[60]  E. Steinhaus.  Concerning the Harmlessness of Insect Pathogens and the Standardization of Microbial Control Products , 1957 .

[61]  L. D. Anderson,et al.  The “Omnivorous Leaf Roller,” Platynota Stultana Wlshm., on Cotton in California: Nomenclature, Life History, and Bionomics (Lepidoptera, Tortricidae) , 1957 .

[62]  R. Balch.  Control of Forest Insects , 1958 .

[63]  G. Decker.  Don't Let the Insects Rule , 1958 .

[64]  B. Bartlett.  Laboratory Studies on Selective Aphicides Favoring Natural Enemies of the Spotted Alfalfa Aphid , 1958 .

[65]  A. Michelbacher,et al.  Induced Increase of Soft Scales on Walnut , 1958 .

[66]  R. Bosch,et al.  The integration of chemical and biological control of the spotted alfalfa aphid: Field experiments on the effects of insecticides , 1959 .

[67]  P. Debach,et al.  Integrating chemical control of mites with biological control of red scale , 1959 .

[68]  Ray F. Smith.  The spread of the spotted alfalfa aphid, Therioaphis maculata (Buckton), in California , 1959 .

[69]  E. Oatman.  Natural Control Studies of the Melon Leaf Miner, Liriomyza pictella (Thomson) , 1959 .

[70]  M. Barnes.  Deciduous Fruit Insects and Their Control , 1959 .

[71]  Ray F. Smith,et al.  Integrated control programs in the future of biological control. , 1959 .

[72]  R. Balch.  Relationships between chemical and biological control of forest insects. I. General introduction and chemical control. II. Biological control, silvicultural methods and conclusions. , 1960 .

[73]  G. D. Peterson,et al.  Potential Use of Dylox and Other Insecticides in a Control Program for Field Crop Pests in California , 1960 .

[74]  E. Dietrick,et al.  Biological control of insect pests aided by strip-farming alfalfa in experimental program , 1960 .

[75]  F. Wilson.  A review of the biological control of insects and weeds in Australia and Australian New Guinea. , 1960 .

[76]  V. Stern.  Further Studies of Integrated Control Methods against the Egyptian Alfalfa Weevil in California , 1961 .

[77]  A. Brown.  The Challenge of Insecticide Resistance , 1961 .

[78]  E. L. Ayers,et al.  The Role of Attractants in the Recent Mediterranean Fruit Fly Eradication Program in Florida , 1961 .