In Their Shoes

Despite the growing interest in crowdsourcing, this new labor model has recently received severe criticism. The most important point of this criticism is that crowdworkers are often underpaid and overworked. This severely affects job satisfaction and productivity. Although there is a growing body of evidence exploring the work experiences of crowdworkers in various countries, there have been a very limited number of studies to the best of our knowledge exploring the work experiences of Chinese crowdworkers. In this paper we aim to address this gap. Based on a framework of well-established approaches, namely the Job Demands-Resources model, the Work Design Questionnaire, the Oldenburg Burnout Inventory, the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale, and the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire, we systematically study the work experiences of 289 crowdworkers who work for ZBJ.com - the most popular Chinese crowdsourcing platform. Our study examines these crowdworker experiences along four dimensions: (1) crowdsourcing job demands, (2) job resources available to the workers, (3) crowdwork experiences, and (4) platform commitment. Our results indicate significant differences across the four dimensions based on crowdworkers' gender, education, income, job nature, and health condition. Further, they illustrate that different crowdworkers have different needs and threshold of demands and resources and that this plays a significant role in terms of moderating the crowdwork experience and platform commitment. Overall, our study sheds light to the work experiences of the Chinese crowdworkers and at the same time contributes to furthering understandings related to the work experiences of crowdworkers.

[1]  J. DeCoster Overview of Factor Analysis , 1998 .

[2]  Toon W. Taris,et al.  A multigroup analysis of the job demands-resources model in four home care organizations , 2003 .

[3]  P. Warr,et al.  Work, unemployment, and mental health , 1987 .

[4]  Enrico Tronci 1997 , 1997, Les 25 ans de l’OMC: Une rétrospective en photos.

[5]  John P. Meyer,et al.  The measurement and antecedents of affective, continuance and normative commitment to the organization , 1990 .

[6]  Janine Berg,et al.  Income Security in the On-Demand Economy: Findings and Policy Lessons from a Survey of Crowdworkers , 2016 .

[7]  Stephen E. Humphrey,et al.  The Work Design Questionnaire (WDQ): developing and validating a comprehensive measure for assessing job design and the nature of work. , 2006, The Journal of applied psychology.

[8]  Alice M. Brawley,et al.  Work experiences on MTurk: Job satisfaction, turnover, and information sharing , 2016, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[9]  Inge Houkes,et al.  Specific relationships between work characteristics and intrinsic work motivation, burnout and turnover intention: A multi-sample analysis , 2001 .

[10]  A. Bakker,et al.  Burnout and Work Engagement among Teachers. , 2006 .

[11]  J. Stevens Applied Multivariate Statistics for the Social Sciences , 1986 .

[12]  Daren C. Brabham Crowdsourcing the Public Participation Process for Planning Projects , 2009 .

[13]  R. Baumeister,et al.  The need to belong: desire for interpersonal attachments as a fundamental human motivation. , 1995, Psychological bulletin.

[14]  Feng Xiao Research on the Solvers' Participating Motivation of Crowdsourcing , 2013 .

[15]  A. Bakker,et al.  The job demands-resources model of burnout. , 2001, The Journal of applied psychology.

[16]  H. Kaiser The Application of Electronic Computers to Factor Analysis , 1960 .

[17]  Mark Graham,et al.  Networked but Commodified: The (Dis)Embeddedness of Digital Labour in the Gig Economy , 2019, Sociology.

[18]  Panos Markopoulos,et al.  Community heuristics for user interface evaluation of crowdsourcing platforms , 2019 .

[19]  Y. Wiener Commitment in Organizations: A Normative View , 1982 .

[20]  Niels Bjørn-Andersen,et al.  Organizational Learning with Crowdsourcing: The Revelatory Case of LEGO , 2014, J. Assoc. Inf. Syst..

[21]  Nina Pološki Vokić,et al.  Individual Differences and Occupational Stress Perceived: A Croatian Survey , 2008 .

[22]  John P. Meyer,et al.  AFFECTIVE, CONTINUANCE, AND NORMATIVE COMMITMENT TO THE ORGANIZATION: A META-ANALYSIS OF ANTECEDENTS, CORRELATES, AND CONSEQUENCES , 2002 .

[23]  Bill Tomlinson,et al.  Who are the crowdworkers?: shifting demographics in mechanical turk , 2010, CHI Extended Abstracts.

[24]  Andy P. Field,et al.  Discovering Statistics Using SPSS , 2000 .

[25]  Laura A. Hambley,et al.  Predicting Teleworker Success: An Exploration of Personality, Motivational, Situational, and Job Characteristics , 2009 .

[26]  R. Kline Principles and practice of structural equation modeling, 3rd ed. , 2011 .

[27]  Ursula Huws,et al.  Crowd Work in Europe : Preliminary results from a survey in the UK, Sweden, Germany, Austria and the Netherlands , 2016 .

[28]  L. Miles,et al.  2000 , 2000, RDH.

[29]  Panagiotis G. Ipeirotis,et al.  Demographics and Dynamics of Mechanical Turk Workers , 2018, WSDM.

[30]  F. Polychroni,et al.  Gender and age differences in occupational stress and professional burnout between primary and high‐school teachers in Greece , 2006 .

[31]  B. Tabachnick,et al.  Using Multivariate Statistics , 1983 .

[32]  R. Ryan,et al.  On energy, personality, and health: subjective vitality as a dynamic reflection of well-being. , 1997, Journal of personality.

[33]  S. Jackson,et al.  The Measurement of experienced burnout , 1981 .

[34]  John D. Nelson,et al.  Linking open data and the crowd for real-time passenger information , 2017, J. Web Semant..

[35]  Arnold B. Bakker,et al.  The convergent validity of two burnout instruments: A multitrait-multimethod analysis. , 2003 .

[36]  Rex B. Kline,et al.  Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling , 1998 .

[37]  Lyman W. Porter,et al.  Employee-Organization Linkages: The Psychology of Commitment, Absenteeism, and Turnover , 2013 .

[38]  Herbert J. Freudenberger Introduction and Acknowledgment , 1974 .

[39]  C. Kelliher,et al.  Doing more with less? Flexible working practices and the intensification of work , 2010 .

[40]  Curt Coffman,et al.  Follow this Path: How the World's Greatest Organizations Drive Growth by Unleashing Human Potential , 2002 .

[41]  Panos Markopoulos,et al.  Macrotask Crowdsourcing: An Integrated Definition , 2019, Macrotask Crowdsourcing.

[42]  Michael S. Bernstein,et al.  The future of crowd work , 2013, CSCW.

[43]  Thomas N. Martin,et al.  The Multiplicative Interaction Effects of Job Involvement and Organizational Commitment on the Turnover Intentions of Full- and Part-Time Employees , 1995 .

[44]  Panagiotis G. Ipeirotis Demographics of Mechanical Turk , 2010 .

[45]  L. Aiken,et al.  Nurse Burnout and Patient Satisfaction , 2004, Medical care.

[46]  Michael S. Bernstein,et al.  Expert crowdsourcing with flash teams , 2014, UIST.

[47]  Alex Burdorf,et al.  Unemployment and retirement and ill-health: a cross-sectional analysis across European countries , 2008, International archives of occupational and environmental health.

[48]  Meredith Ringel Morris,et al.  Accessible Crowdwork?: Understanding the Value in and Challenge of Microtask Employment for People with Disabilities , 2015, CSCW.

[49]  Evangelia Demerouti,et al.  Burnout and work engagement: a thorough investigation of the independency of both constructs. , 2010, Journal of occupational health psychology.

[50]  G. R. J. Hockey Compensatory control in the regulation of human performance under stress and high workload: A cognitive-energetical framework , 1997, Biological Psychology.

[51]  Scott R. Klemmer,et al.  Shepherding the crowd yields better work , 2012, CSCW.

[52]  S. West,et al.  The investigation of personality structure: Statistical models , 1997 .

[53]  Mary L. Gray,et al.  The Crowd is a Collaborative Network , 2016, CSCW.

[54]  Fernando González-Ladrón-de-Guevara,et al.  Towards an integrated crowdsourcing definition , 2012, J. Inf. Sci..

[55]  R. W. White Motivation reconsidered: the concept of competence. , 1959, Psychological review.

[56]  Jeffrey P. Bigham,et al.  Striving to Earn More: A Survey of Work Strategies and Tool Use Among Crowd Workers , 2018, HCOMP.

[57]  Rolph E. Anderson,et al.  Multivariate data analysis (4th ed.): with readings , 1995 .

[58]  Mor Naaman,et al.  The motivations and experiences of the on-demand mobile workforce , 2014, CSCW.

[59]  Muhammad Ali Babar,et al.  Collaborative Software Development Platforms for Crowdsourcing , 2014, IEEE Software.

[60]  Petter Gustavsson,et al.  Burnout Levels and Self-Rated Health Prospectively Predict Future Long-Term Sickness Absence: A Study Among Female Health Professionals , 2011, Journal of occupational and environmental medicine.

[61]  Efraim Turban,et al.  What can crowdsourcing do for decision support? , 2014, Decis. Support Syst..

[62]  Daniel J. Veit,et al.  More than fun and money. Worker Motivation in Crowdsourcing - A Study on Mechanical Turk , 2011, AMCIS.

[63]  Sebastiaan Rothmann,et al.  Work-related well-being of educators in a district of the North-West Province , 2005 .

[64]  Gert-Jan de Vreede,et al.  Participant Engagement in Community Crowdsourcing , 2015, ECIS.

[65]  Fahri Sezer,et al.  Examining of Teacher Burnout Level in Terms of Some Variables , 2012 .

[66]  L. Porter,et al.  The Measurement of Organizational Commitment. , 1979 .

[67]  Matteo Ronchetti,et al.  The relevance of socio-demographic and occupational variables for the assessment of work-related stress risk , 2013, BMC Public Health.

[68]  Klaus-Helmut Schmidt,et al.  Commitment und Identifikation mit Organisationen , 2004 .

[69]  R. Cattell The Scree Test For The Number Of Factors. , 1966, Multivariate behavioral research.

[70]  Peter J. Sloane,et al.  Are “Overpaid” Workers Really Unhappy? A Test of the Theory of Cognitive Dissonance , 1996 .

[71]  Jacki O'Neill,et al.  Turk-Life in India , 2014, GROUP.

[72]  Wilmar B. Schaufeli,et al.  PAST PERFORMANCE AND FUTURE PERSPECTIVES OF BURNOUT RESEARCH , 2003 .

[73]  H. Freudenberger Staff burn-out , 1974 .

[74]  Martin Schreier,et al.  The Value of Crowdsourcing: Can Users Really Compete with Professionals in Generating New Product Ideas? , 2009 .

[75]  Franziska Franke,et al.  Commitment und Identifikation in Organisationen , 2008 .

[76]  María del Carmen González Menéndez,et al.  In search of good quality part-time employment , 2014 .

[77]  Arno Georg,et al.  Belastung und Beanspruchung , 2013 .

[78]  C. Maslach,et al.  The Truth about Burnout: How Organizations Cause Personal Stress and What to Do about It , 1997 .

[79]  Robert Karasek,et al.  Job decision latitude and mental strain: Implications for job redesign , 1979 .

[80]  William A. Kahn To Be Fully There: Psychological Presence at Work , 1992 .

[81]  Vassilis-Javed Khan,et al.  The Changing Landscape of Crowdsourcing in China: From Individual Crowdworkers to Crowdfarms , 2019, CSCW Companion.

[82]  C. Cooper,et al.  Organizational Stress: A Review and Critique of Theory, Research, and Applications , 2001 .

[83]  G. Robert J. Hockey,et al.  Cognitive-energetical control mechanisms in the management of work demands and psychological health. , 1993 .

[84]  A. Bakker,et al.  Job demands, job resources, and their relationship with burnout and engagement: a multi‐sample study , 2004 .

[85]  Anne-Marie Greene,et al.  Crowdsourcing and Work: Individual Factors and Circumstances Influencing Employability , 2015 .

[86]  T. Thrall Work redesign. , 2003, Hospitals & health networks.

[87]  T. Meijman Psychological Aspects of Workload , 1998 .

[88]  J. Stevens,et al.  Applied multivariate statistics for the social sciences, 4th ed. , 2002 .

[89]  Fabian Flöck,et al.  Characterizing the Global Crowd Workforce: A Cross-Country Comparison of Crowdworker Demographics , 2018, Hum. Comput..

[90]  James Davis,et al.  Evaluating and improving the usability of Mechanical Turk for low-income workers in India , 2010, ACM DEV '10.

[91]  Mark A. Shadur,et al.  The Measurement Artifact in the Organizational Commitment Questionnaire , 2000, Psychological reports.