Current concepts in procedural consolidation

Practice is vital to the acquisition of new skills, but the brain does not stop processing information when practice stops. After practice, changes take place that strengthen and modify the new skill. These changes, described under the umbrella term 'consolidation', take two distinct forms: the enhancement of skills and the stabilization of memories. Here we describe and evaluate the evidence for these types of consolidation.

[1]  J. Hobson,et al.  The cognitive neuroscience of sleep: neuronal systems, consciousness and learning , 2002, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[2]  M. Hallett,et al.  Modulation of cortical motor output maps during development of implicit and explicit knowledge. , 1994, Science.

[3]  M. Hallett,et al.  Early consolidation in human primary motor cortex , 2002, Nature.

[4]  A. Karni,et al.  Dependence on REM sleep of overnight improvement of a perceptual skill. , 1994, Science.

[5]  R. Seidler Multiple Motor Learning Experiences Enhance Motor Adaptability , 2004, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[6]  T. Brashers-Krug,et al.  Functional Stages in the Formation of Human Long-Term Motor Memory , 1997, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[7]  J. Hobson,et al.  Visual discrimination learning requires sleep after training , 2000, Nature Neuroscience.

[8]  Ted Abel,et al.  Sleep and memory: a molecular perspective , 2001, Trends in Neurosciences.

[9]  L. Squire,et al.  100 years of consolidation--remembering Müller and Pilzecker. , 1999, Learning & memory.

[10]  R. Bjork,et al.  Metacognition in motor learning. , 2001, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[11]  A. Karni The acquisition of perceptual and motor skills: a memory system in the adult human cortex. , 1996, Brain research. Cognitive brain research.

[12]  S. Sara,et al.  Commentary — reconsolidation: Strengthening the shaky trace through retrieval , 2000, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[13]  R. Stickgold,et al.  Sleep, Learning, and Dreams: Off-line Memory Reprocessing , 2001, Science.

[14]  J. Gabrieli,et al.  Direct comparison of neural systems mediating conscious and unconscious skill learning. , 2002, Journal of neurophysiology.

[15]  J. Born,et al.  Sleep inspires insight , 2004, Nature.

[16]  Joseph E LeDoux,et al.  Reply — reconsolidation: The labile nature of consolidation theory , 2000, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[17]  H. Eysenck A THREE-FACTOR THEORY OF REMINISCENCE. , 1965, British journal of psychology.

[18]  E. Vaadia,et al.  Single-unit activity related to bimanual arm movements in the primary and supplementary motor cortices. , 2002, Journal of neurophysiology.

[19]  Robert Stickgold,et al.  To sleep, perchance to gain creative insight? , 2004, Trends in Cognitive Sciences.

[20]  David L Wright,et al.  Long-Term Motor Programming Improvements Occur Via Concatenation of Movement Sequences During Random But Not During Blocked Practice , 2004, Journal of motor behavior.

[21]  Tamar Flash,et al.  Multiple shifts in the representation of a motor sequence during the acquisition of skilled performance , 2003, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[22]  O. Bock,et al.  Mechanisms for sensorimotor adaptation to rotated visual input , 2001, Experimental Brain Research.

[23]  J. Flanagan,et al.  Task-specific internal models for kinematic transformations. , 2003, Journal of neurophysiology.

[24]  Daniel B. Willingham,et al.  Patterns of interference in sequence learning and prism adaptation inconsistent with the consolidation hypothesis. , 2002, Learning & memory.

[25]  M. Steriade,et al.  Neuronal Plasticity in Thalamocortical Networks during Sleep and Waking Oscillations , 2003, Neuron.

[26]  Q. Gu,et al.  Neuromodulatory transmitter systems in the cortex and their role in cortical plasticity , 2002, Neuroscience.

[27]  E. Bizzi,et al.  Consolidation in human motor memory , 1996, Nature.

[28]  A. Fuchs,et al.  The characteristics and neuronal substrate of saccadic eye movement plasticity , 2004, Progress in Neurobiology.

[29]  Carlyle T. Smith,et al.  Impaired motor memory for a pursuit rotor task following Stage 2 sleep loss in college students , 1994, Journal of sleep research.

[30]  J. Shea,et al.  Contextual interference effects on the acquisition, retention, and transfer of a motor skill. , 1979 .

[31]  R. Stickgold,et al.  Practice with Sleep Makes Perfect Sleep-Dependent Motor Skill Learning , 2002, Neuron.

[32]  Albert K. Lee,et al.  Memory of Sequential Experience in the Hippocampus during Slow Wave Sleep , 2002, Neuron.

[33]  R. Shadmehr,et al.  Mechanisms influencing acquisition and recall of motor memories. , 2002, Journal of neurophysiology.

[34]  Herbert Heuer,et al.  Task integration as a factor in secondary-task effects on sequence learning , 1997 .

[35]  Á. Pascual-Leone,et al.  Awareness Modifies the Skill-Learning Benefits of Sleep , 2004, Current Biology.

[36]  B. McNaughton,et al.  Reactivation of hippocampal ensemble memories during sleep. , 1994, Science.

[37]  U. Mayr,et al.  Spatial attention and implicit sequence learning: evidence for independent learning of spatial and nonspatial sequences. , 1996, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[38]  J. Hobson,et al.  Visual Discrimination Task Improvement: A Multi-Step Process Occurring During Sleep , 2000, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[39]  A. Pascual-Leone,et al.  Studies in Cognition: The Problems Solved and Created by Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation , 2003, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[40]  D. Wolpert,et al.  Consolidation of Dynamic Motor Learning Is Not Disrupted by rTMS of Primary Motor Cortex , 2004, Current Biology.

[41]  H. J. Eysenck,et al.  Reminiscence, Motivation, and Personality , 1977 .

[42]  S. Rachman,et al.  REMINISCENCE, INHIBITION AND CONSOLIDATION. , 1965, British journal of psychology.

[43]  C. Carter,et al.  Regional brain activation during concurrent implicit and explicit sequence learning. , 2004, Cerebral cortex.

[44]  D. J. Lewis,et al.  Retrograde Amnesia Produced by Electroconvulsive Shock after Reactivation of a Consolidated Memory Trace , 1968, Science.

[45]  J. Born,et al.  Early sleep triggers memory for early visual discrimination skills , 2000, Nature Neuroscience.

[46]  K. Holyoak,et al.  The emergence of coherence over the course of decision making. , 2001 .

[47]  R. Miall,et al.  Adaptation to rotated visual feedback: a re-examination of motor interference , 2003, Experimental Brain Research.

[48]  J. D. McGaugh Memory--a century of consolidation. , 2000, Science.

[49]  O. Hikosaka,et al.  Chunking during human visuomotor sequence learning , 2003, Experimental Brain Research.

[50]  R. Shadmehr,et al.  Neural correlates of motor memory consolidation. , 1997, Science.

[51]  Robert B. Welch,et al.  Multiple concurrent visual-motor mappings: implications for models of adaptation. , 1994 .

[52]  John W. Krakauer,et al.  Independent learning of internal models for kinematic and dynamic control of reaching , 1999, Nature Neuroscience.

[53]  Q. Gu Contribution of acetylcholine to visual cortex plasticity , 2003, Neurobiology of Learning and Memory.

[54]  Richard B Ivry,et al.  Concurrent learning of temporal and spatial sequences. , 2002, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[55]  A. Maslow Motivation and Personality , 1954 .

[56]  Leslie G. Ungerleider,et al.  Functional MRI evidence for adult motor cortex plasticity during motor skill learning , 1995, Nature.

[57]  M. Kawato,et al.  Random presentation enables subjects to adapt to two opposing forces on the hand , 2004, Nature Neuroscience.

[58]  R B Welch,et al.  Multiple concurrent visual-motor mappings: implications for models of adaptation. , 1994, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[59]  R. Stickgold,et al.  Dissociable stages of human memory consolidation and reconsolidation , 2003, Nature.

[60]  A. Giuditta,et al.  The sequential hypothesis of the function of sleep , 1995, Behavioural Brain Research.

[61]  M. Hallett,et al.  Modulation of muscle responses evoked by transcranial magnetic stimulation during the acquisition of new fine motor skills. , 1995, Journal of neurophysiology.

[62]  R. Passingham,et al.  Sleep-Related Consolidation of a Visuomotor Skill: Brain Mechanisms as Assessed by Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging , 2003, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[63]  Daniel M Wolpert,et al.  Kinematics and Dynamics Are Not Represented Independently in Motor Working Memory: Evidence from an Interference Study , 2002, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[64]  J. Born,et al.  Sleep forms memory for finger skills , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.