Examining the Effects of Selected Computer-Based Scaffolds on Preservice Teachers' Levels of Reflection as Evidenced in their Online Journal Writing

EXAMINING THE EFFECTS OF SELECTED COMPUTER-BASED SCAFFOLDS ON PRESERVICE TEACHERS’ LEVELS OF REFLECTION AS EVIDENCED IN THEIR ONLINE JOURNAL WRITING by Guolin Lai This study used explanatory mixed methods to examine the effects of two computer-based reflection writing scaffolds, question prompts and writing process display, on preservice teachers’ levels of reflection in their online reflective journal writing. The scaffolds were embedded in a system simulating the Professional Accountability Support System Using a Portal Approach (PASS-PORT). The outcome measure was the level of reflection achieved in participants’ writing. The researcher collected data at the College of Education of a major southern university in the United States. Participants were undergraduate students enrolled in a technology integration course in fall 2007. Sixty-five preservice teachers participated in quantitative phase of the study; sixteen out of the 65 preservice teachers were purposefully selected to participate in qualitative phase of the study. The majority of the preservice teachers were white females between the ages of 20-29 in their junior year. During the quantitative phase of the study, participants in control group and two treatment groups were randomly and evenly assigned to one of three different Web pages associated with their treatment conditions. The participants reflected on a critical incident that happened during their practical teaching. Two raters, blind to the participants’ treatment conditions, coded the highest level of reflection achieved in their writing samples using the reflection rubric developed by Ward and McCotter (2004). The researcher employed ANOVA to assess the group differences in the highest level of reflection reached and in the length of the reflective writing in the number of words. The alpha level was set at .05 for all analyses. During the qualitative phase, the researcher conducted open-ended interviews with the participants as a follow-up to their reflection writing. The participants’ reflection writings and interviews served as data sources. Miles and Huberman's (1994) data analysis procedures guided the qualitative data analysis. The quantitative results indicated that computer-based scaffolds significantly enhanced preservice teachers’ levels of reflection in their online journal writing. Preservice teachers who used the scaffolds wrote longer reflection than those in the control group. Correlation analysis revealed that there was a positive relationship between the level of reflection and the length of journal writing. Three overarching factors emerged from the qualitative data analysis that explained how and why the computer-based scaffolds enhanced their reflective journal writing. The factors included (a) the specific requirements conveyed in the scaffolds; (b) the structure of the scaffolds; and (c) the use of the critical incidents to anchor reflective journal writing. How to improve preservice teachers’ critical reflection capability and skills remains an actively debated topic. Recent years have witnessed an emergence of research and development in Web-based educational systems to help prepare highly qualified teacher candidates. However, the articulative/reflective attribute of meaningful learning does not seem to be evident in most of these systems. Although there is considerable research on the potential for embedding scaffolds in technology-enhanced learning environments, mechanisms intended to facilitate reflective practice in such environments also seems to be lacking. In order to help fill this gap, it is hoped that the analyses and results of the current study can be used as a building block for research on how to leverage the affordances of computer-based scaffolds to enhance preservice teachers’ reflective practice in technology-enhanced educational systems. EXAMINING THE EFFECTS OF SELECTED COMPUTER-BASED SCAFFOLDS ON PRESERVICE TEACHERS’ LEVELS OF REFLECTION AS EVIDENCED IN THEIR ONLINE JOURNAL WRITING by Guolin Lai

[1]  J. M. Simmons,et al.  Reflective Pedagogical Thinking: How Can We Promote It and Measure It? , 1990 .

[2]  David Kember,et al.  Determining the level of reflective thinking from students' written journals using a coding scheme based on the work of Mezirow , 1999 .

[3]  D. Beijaard,et al.  Student Teachers' Outlook on Teaching: A Content Analysis of Their Reflective Reports on Experiences in Practice. , 1997 .

[4]  E. Davis.  Characterizing productive reflection among preservice elementary teachers: Seeing what matters , 2006 .

[5]  Karen Deshon Hamlin,et al.  Beginning the journey: supporting reflection in early field experiences , 2004 .

[6]  John Smyth,et al.  Developing and Sustaining Critical Reflection in Teacher Education , 1989, Current Issues in Education.

[7]  Sarah Fletcher,et al.  Modelling reflective practice for pre-service teachers: The role of teacher educators , 1997 .

[8]  D. Francis.  The reflective journal: a window to preservice teachers' practical knowledge , 1995 .

[9]  Guolin Lai,et al.  A Digital Video Reflection Tool for Urban Teachers in Training , 2005 .

[10]  Michael F. Young,et al.  Instructional design for situated learning , 1993 .

[11]  Design-Based Research: An Emerging Paradigm for Educational Inquiry , 2003 .

[12]  Anastasia P. Samaras,et al.  SCAFFOLDS IN THE FIELD: VYGOTSKIAN INTERPRETATION IN A TEACHER EDUCATION PROGRAM , 1998 .

[13]  Tiffany A. Koszalka.  Reflection Through the ID-PRISM: A Teacher Planning Tool to Transform Classrooms into Web-Enhanced Learning Environments , 2003 .

[14]  L. Finlay,et al.  Reflecting on ‘Reflective practice’ , 2008 .

[15]  Donald A. Schön.  The Reflective turn : case studies in and on educational practice , 1991 .

[16]  Vicki Kubler LaBoskey,et al.  A Conceptual Framework for Reflection in Preservice Teacher Education , 2003 .

[17]  Thomas W. Bean,et al.  Scaffolding Reflection for Preservice and Inservice Teachers , 2002 .

[18]  J. C. Flanagan.  Psychological Bulletin THE CRITICAL INCIDENT TECHNIQUE , 2022 .

[19]  Kenneth M. Zeichner,et al.  Action research and reflective teaching in preservice teacher education: A case study from the United States , 1991 .

[20]  François Victor Tochon,et al.  Myths in Teacher Education: Towards Reflectivity. , 1999 .

[21]  G. M. Sparks-Langer,et al.  A Conceptual Framework to Guide the Development of Teacher Reflection and Decision Making , 1993 .

[22]  Xiaodong Lin,et al.  Designing technology to support reflection , 1999 .

[23]  B. Bright.  Reflecting on ‘Reflective Practice’ , 1996 .

[24]  Donald A. Schön.  Educating the Reflective Practitioner: Toward a New Design for Teaching and Learning in the Professions , 1987 .

[25]  Thomas C. Reeves,et al.  Enhancing the Worth of Instructional Technology Research through "Design Experiments" and Other Development Research Strategies , 2000 .

[26]  Thomas C. Reeves,et al.  A development research agenda for online collaborative learning , 2004 .

[27]  David Boud,et al.  Making the most of experience , 1990 .

[28]  Anne Reilley Freese,et al.  The role of reflection on preservice teachers’ development in the context of a professional development school , 1999 .

[29]  Sasha A. Barab,et al.  The Effect of Social Context on the Reflective Practice of Preservice Science Teachers: Incorporati , 2006 .

[30]  Maria Elena Galvez-Martin,et al.  Reflection and the Preservice Teacher. , 1998 .

[31]  Min Liu,et al.  The Effects of Modeling Expert Cognitive Strategies during Problem-Based Learning , 2002 .

[32]  Jeffrey M. Kenton,et al.  Toward Technology Integration in the Schools: Why It Isn’t Happening , 2005 .

[33]  E. Surbeck,et al.  Assessing Reflective Responses in Journals. , 1991 .

[34]  Hilary McLellan,et al.  The Internet as a virtual learning community , 1998, J. Comput. High. Educ..

[35]  L. Shulman.  Knowledge and Teaching: Foundations of the New Reform , 1987 .

[36]  Linda R. Valli,et al.  Reflective teacher education : cases and critiques , 1992 .

[37]  Daniel P. Liston,et al.  Teaching Student Teachers to Reflect , 1987 .

[38]  J. Greeno,et al.  The cognitive skill of teaching. , 1986 .

[39]  B. Rosenshine,et al.  The Use of Scaffolds for Teaching Higher-Level Cognitive Strategies. , 1992 .

[40]  Delaura L. Hubbs,et al.  The Paper Mirror: Understanding Reflective Journaling , 2005 .

[41]  M. Manen.  Linking Ways of Knowing with Ways of Being Practical , 1977 .

[42]  Jae-Won Moon.  Reflection in Learning and Professional Development: Theory and Practice , 2005 .

[43]  Philip Bell,et al.  Using argument representations to make thinking visible for individuals and groups , 1997, CSCL.

[44]  Brendan Calandra,et al.  Using Online Scaffolds to Enhance Preservice Teachers' Reflective Journal Writing: A Qualitative Analysis , 2007 .

[45]  Timothy Reagan.  Educating the reflective practitioner': the contribution of philosophy of education , 1993 .

[46]  John Wedman,et al.  A computer-mediated support system for project-based learning , 1998 .

[47]  R. Azevedo,et al.  Scaffolding Self-regulated Learning and Metacognition – Implications for the Design of Computer-based Scaffolds , 2005 .

[48]  David W. Brooks,et al.  Electronic Journal Writing for Student Teachers , 1994 .

[49]  Suzanne Schwarz McCotter,et al.  Reflection as a Visible Outcome for Preservice Teachers. , 2004 .

[50]  David C. Berliner,et al.  The Development of Expertise in Pedagogy. , 1988 .

[51]  Debora Weber-Wulff,et al.  Human-computer interaction in the new millennium , 2002, SOEN.

[52]  Georgea Mohlman Sparks-Langer,et al.  Synthesis of Research on Teachers' Reflective Thinking. , 1991 .

[53]  M. Jasper,et al.  Nurses' perceptions of the value of written reflection. , 1999, Nurse education today.

[54]  Jan van den Akker,et al.  Principles and Methods of Development Research , 1999 .

[55]  D. Ross.  First Steps in Developing A Reflective Approach , 1989 .

[56]  Jane Hunter,et al.  Approaches to the Writing of Cases: experiences with preservice Master of Teaching students , 1998 .

[57]  Glenda Campbell-Evans,et al.  Using Interactive Journal Writing as a Strategy for Professional Growth , 2002 .

[58]  I. Rovegno,et al.  Content-Knowledge Acquisition During Undergraduate Teacher Education: Overcoming Cultural Templates and Learning Through Practice , 1993 .

[59]  Carol R. Rodgers,et al.  Defining Reflection: Another Look at John Dewey and Reflective Thinking , 2002, Teachers College Record: The Voice of Scholarship in Education.

[60]  M. Manen.  On the Epistemology of Reflective Practice , 1995 .

[61]  D. Kolb.  Experiential Learning: Experience as the Source of Learning and Development , 1983 .

[62]  Jo Ann Oravec.  Weblogs as an emerging genre in higher education , 2003, J. Comput. High. Educ..

[63]  Christine A. Krol.  Preservice Teacher Education Students' Dialogue Journals: What Characterizes Students' Reflective Writing and a Teacher's Comments. , 1996 .

[64]  Paul F. Conway,et al.  Anticipatory reflection while learning to teach: from a temporally truncated to a temporally distributed model of reflection in teacher education , 2001 .

[65]  Thomas C. Reeves,et al.  Socially Responsible Educational Technology Research. , 2000 .

[66]  R. Clark,et al.  Technology or Craft: What Are We Doing?. , 1998 .

[67]  Catherine McLoughlin,et al.  Learner Support in Distance and Networked Learning Environments: Ten Dimensions for Successful Design , 2002 .

[68]  D. Boud.  Using Journal Writing to Enhance Reflective Practice , 2001 .

[69]  N. Noddings.  An Ethic of Caring and Its Implications for Instructional Arrangements , 1988, American Journal of Education.

[70]  R. Gallimore,et al.  Rousing Minds to Life: Teaching, Learning, and Schooling in Social Context , 1988 .

[71]  서정헌,et al.  반도체 공정 overview , 2001 .

[72]  Nancy L. Leech,et al.  Enhancing the Interpretation of Significant Findings: The Role of Mixed Methods Research , 2004 .

[73]  Margaret Martin,et al.  Reflection in teacher education: how can it be supported? , 2005 .

[74]  Nathan Bond,et al.  Collaborative Reflection and Professional Community Building: An Analysis of Preservice Teachers’ Use of an Electronic Discussion Board , 2003 .

[75]  D. Schoen,et al.  The Reflective Practitioner: How Professionals Think in Action , 1985 .

[76]  Peggy A. Ertmer.  Transforming teacher education: Visions and strategies , 2003 .

[77]  J. Loughran.  Developing Reflective Practice: Learning About Teaching And Learning Through Modelling , 1996 .

[78]  Edward G. Pultorak.  Followling the Developmental Process of Reflection in Novice Teachers: Three Years of Investigation , 1996 .

[79]  P. Kirschner,et al.  Taking the Load Off a Learner's Mind: Instructional Design for Complex Learning , 2003 .

[80]  Terry King.  Development of Student Skills in Reflective Writing , 2002 .

[81]  B. Paterson,et al.  Developing and maintaining reflection in clinical journals. , 1995, Nurse education today.

[82]  Catherine E. Snow,et al.  Knowing What We Know: Children,Teachers, Researchers , 2001 .

[83]  Chong Ho Yu,et al.  Impact of Asynchronous and Synchronous Internet-Based Communication on Collaboration and Performance among K-12 Teachers , 2000 .

[84]  Susanne P. Lajoie.  Extending the Scaffolding Metaphor , 2005 .

[85]  J. Bain,et al.  Using Journal Writing to Enhance Student Teachers’ Reflectivity During Field Experience Placements , 1999 .

[86]  W. Smyth.  Educating Teachers: Changing the Nature of Pedagogical Knowledge , 1987 .

[87]  J. Mezirow.  A Critical Theory of Adult Learning and Education , 1981 .

[88]  Denis McLaughlin,et al.  Empowering the Novice: Promoting Reflection in Preservice Teacher Education. , 1994 .

[89]  Barbara B. Levin.  Analysis of the Content and Purpose of Four Different Kinds of Electronic Communications Among Preservice Teachers , 1999 .

[90]  Marilyn Cochran-Smith,et al.  Learning to Teach against the Grain , 1991 .

[91]  Garry Hoban.  Using Web-based Templates to Support Reflection on Learning in University Classes , 2000 .

[92]  B. Rogoff,et al.  Children's Learning in the Zone of Proximal Development , 1984 .

[93]  Kim Young-Soo,et al.  Heightening Reflection Through Dialogue: A Case for Electronic Journaling and Electronic Concept Mapping in Science Classes , 2001 .

[94]  Pm Jenkinson,et al.  Cognitive , 2020, Definitions.

[95]  Jim Anderson,et al.  Journal Writing: The Promise and the Reality. , 1993 .

[96]  M. Griffin.  Using Critical Incidents to Promote and Assess Reflective Thinking in Preservice Teachers , 2003 .

[97]  Roy Ballantyne,et al.  Developing Reflection on Practice Through Journal Writing: Impacts of variations in the focus and level of feedback , 2002 .

[98]  Alfred Bork,et al.  Multimedia in Learning , 2001 .

[99]  Joan Pedro,et al.  Reflection in teacher education: exploring pre‐service teachers’ meanings of reflective practice , 2005 .

[100]  Guolin Lai,et al.  TEPSS: Initial Steps in the Design of Electronic Support for Novice Teachers. , 2005 .

[101]  Mark Guzdial,et al.  Learner-centered design: the challenge for HCI in the 21st century , 1994, INTR.

[102]  J. Calderhead,et al.  The nature and growth of knowledge in student teaching , 1991 .

[103]  Frances S. Bolin.  Helping Student Teachers Think about Teaching , 1988 .

[104]  A. Onwuegbuzie,et al.  Mixed Methods Research: A Research Paradigm Whose Time Has Come , 2004 .

[105]  Guy R. Todnem,et al.  A Process for Personal Theory Building. , 1991 .

[106]  Kenneth M. Zeichner,et al.  Reflective Teaching: An Introduction , 1996 .

[107]  Naomi Miyake,et al.  Explorations of Scaffolding in Complex Classroom Systems , 2004, The Journal of the Learning Sciences.

[108]  Robert Maribe Branch,et al.  Revisioning models of instructional development , 1997 .

[109]  Judith Z. Ellsworth,et al.  Using Student Portfolios to Increase Reflective Practice among Elementary Teachers , 2002 .

[110]  Lim Cher Ping *,et al.  Engaging junior college students in computer‐mediated lessons using scaffolding strategies , 2004 .

[111]  Holly H. Robbins,et al.  Comparative Analysis of Preservice Teachers' Reflective Thinking in Synchronous Versus Asynchronous , 2006 .

[112]  Patricia Austin,et al.  Orientations to Reflective Practice. , 1996 .

[113]  Amy Roth McDuffie,et al.  Utilizing Online Discussion to Support Reflection and Challenge Beliefs in Elementary Mathematics Methods Classrooms , 2002 .

[114]  Thomas E. Baker,et al.  Helping Preservice Teachers Focus on Success for All Learners through Guided Reflection. , 2003 .

[115]  Jeffrey John Loughran.  Learning Through Modeling: Developing Preservice Teachers’ Understanding of Reflection , 1996 .

[116]  J. Dewey.  How we think : a restatement of the relation of reflective thinking to the educative process , 1934 .

[117]  Hea-Jin Lee,et al.  Understanding and assessing preservice teachers’ reflective thinking , 2005 .

[118]  Ying Xie,et al.  Students' Lived Experience Of Using Weblogs In a Class: An Exploratory Study. , 2005 .

[119]  Jeffrey Gorrell,et al.  Cognitive Modeling and Self-Efficacy: Effects on Preservice Teachers' Learning of Teaching Strategies , 1990 .

[120]  David H. Jonassen,et al.  Learning to Solve Problems with Technology: A Constructivist Perspective , 2002 .

[121]  Xiaodong Lin,et al.  Supporting Learning of Variable Control in a Computer-Based Biology Environment: Effects of Prompting College Students to Reflect on Their Own Thinking , 1999 .

[122]  Joelle K. Jay,et al.  Capturing complexity: a typology of reflective practice for teacher education , 2002 .

[123]  Linda A. Hoover.  Reflective writing as a window on preservice teachers' thought processes , 1994 .

[124]  Tyrone C. Howard,et al.  Culturally Relevant Pedagogy: Ingredients for Critical Teacher Reflection , 2003 .

[125]  Edward R. Ducharme,et al.  Reflecting on Reflecting , 1996 .

[126]  Jeffrey John Loughran,et al.  Practising what I preach: Modelling reflective practice to student teachers , 1995 .

[127]  L. Orland-Barak,et al.  Portfolios as evidence of reflective practice: what remains ‘untold’ , 2005 .

[128]  Kathleen A. Roskos,et al.  Making connections: Preservice teachers‟ reflection processes and strategies , 2000 .

[129]  Frederick B. King,et al.  E-Journaling: A Strategy to Support Student Reflection and Understanding , 2006 .

[130]  E. Spalding,et al.  Demystifying Reflection: A Study of Pedagogical Strategies That Encourage Reflective Journal Writing. , 2002 .

[131]  Jeremy B. Williams,et al.  Exploring the use of blogs as learning spaces in the higher education sector , 2004 .

[132]  Peter Newmark,et al.  Editorial , 1994, Current Biology.

[133]  D. Boud,et al.  Promoting Reflection in Learning: a Model , 2013 .

[134]  Andy Field,et al.  Discovering statistics using SPSS, 2nd ed. , 2005 .

[135]  Michael Dias,et al.  Using Digital Video for Professional Development in Urban Schools , 2006 .

[136]  Judith A. Langer,et al.  Instructional Scaffolding: Reading and Writing as Natural Language Activities , 1983, Language Arts.

[137]  Ira Shor.  Empowering Education: Critical Teaching for Social Change , 1992 .

[138]  Todd Dinkelman,et al.  An inquiry into the development of critical reflection in secondary student teachers , 2000 .

[139]  George J. Posner,et al.  Field Experience: A Guide to Reflective Teaching , 1985 .

[140]  Amy E. Ryken.  A spider and a fly in a web: Seeing myself in the details of praxis , 2004 .

[141]  Holger H. Hoos,et al.  Editors' Notes , 1979, Computer Music Journal.

[142]  Sheila Cordry,et al.  Reflective Journals: A Valuable Tool for Teacher Preparation , 2004 .

[143]  J. Bruner,et al.  The role of tutoring in problem solving. , 1976, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[144]  Garry Hoban,et al.  Using a Reflective Framework to Study Teaching-learning Relationships , 2000 .

[145]  Daniel C. Edelson,et al.  Scaffolding Analysis: Extending the Scaffolding Metaphor to Learning Artifacts , 2004, The Journal of the Learning Sciences.

[146]  Feng Wang,et al.  Design-based research and technology-enhanced learning environments , 2005 .

[147]  John Smyth,et al.  Reflective Practice in Teacher Education , 1993 .

[148]  B. Larrivee,et al.  Transforming Teaching Practice: Becoming the critically reflective teacher , 2000 .

[149]  Stephen W. Harmon,et al.  A Case Study of Design-Based Research for Creating a Vision Prototype of a Technology-Based Innovative Learning Environment , 2009 .

[150]  Peggy A. Ertmer.  Teacher pedagogical beliefs: The final frontier in our quest for technology integration? , 2005 .

[151]  Marlene Scardamalia,et al.  Teachability of Reflective Processes in Written Composition , 1984, Cogn. Sci..

[152]  유창조.  Naturalistic Inquiry , 2022, The SAGE Encyclopedia of Research Design.

[153]  Kenneth M. Zeichner.  Alternative Paradigms of Teacher Education , 1983 .

[154]  J. Michael Spector,et al.  An Overview of Progress and Problems in Educational Technology , 2001 .

[155]  Steven D. Tripp,et al.  Rapid prototyping: An alternative instructional design strategy , 1990 .

[156]  N. Hatton,et al.  Reflection in teacher education: Towards definition and implementation , 1995 .

[157]  Adrian Kirkwood,et al.  Training the Educational Technologist. , 1976 .

[158]  Guolin Lai,et al.  A Model for Facilitating Field Experience in a Technology-Enhanced Model Pedagogical Laboratory , 2008 .

[159]  Michelle T. Kao.  Scaffolding in Hypermedia Assisted Instruction: An Example of Integration. , 1996 .

[160]  John F. Bauer.  Assessing Student Work from Chatrooms and Bulletin Boards , 2002 .

[161]  Susan E. Newman,et al.  Cognitive Apprenticeship: Teaching the Craft of Reading, Writing, and Mathematics. Technical Report No. 403. , 1987 .

[162]  James L. Bowen,et al.  Digital Video/Multimedia Portfolios as a Tool To Develop Reflective Teacher Candidates. , 2002 .

[163]  Joan L. Whipp,et al.  Scaffolding Critical Reflection in Online Discussions , 2003 .

[164]  Michael J. Hannafin,et al.  Teaching and learning in digital environments: The resurgence of resource-based learning , 2001 .

[165]  Shelley B. Wepner.  “You Never Run Out of Stamps” Electronic Communication in Field Experiences , 1997 .

[166]  D. Yost,et al.  An Examination of the Construct of Critical Reflection: Implications for Teacher Education Programming in the 21st Century , 2000 .

[167]  Improvement,et al.  Encouraging Reflective Practice in Education: An Analysis of Issues and Programs , 1990 .