A close-up on the expanding landscape of CD21–/low B cells in humans

Summary Memory B cells (MBCs) are an essential part of our immunological memory. They respond fast upon re-encountering pathogens and can differentiate into plasma cells that secrete protective antibodies. The focus of this review is on MBCs that lack, or express low levels of, CD21, hereafter referred to as CD21–/low. These cells are expanded in peripheral blood with age and during chronic inflammatory conditions such as viral infections, malaria, common variable immunodeficiency, and autoimmune diseases. CD21–/low MBCs have gained significant attention; they produce disease-specific antibodies/autoantibodies and associate with key disease manifestations in some conditions. These cells can be divided into subsets based on classical B-cell and other markers, e.g. CD11c, FcRL4, and Tbet which, over the years, have become hallmarks to identify these cells. This has resulted in different names including age-associated, autoimmune-associated, atypical, tissue-like, tissue-resident, tissue-restricted, exhausted, or simply CD21–/low B cells. It is however unclear whether the expanded ‘CD21–/low’ cells in one condition are equivalent to those in another, whether they express an identical gene signature and whether they have a similar function. Here, we will discuss these issues with the goal to understand whether the CD21–/low B cells are comparable in different conditions.