Fecal bacteria in the rivers of the Seine drainage network (France): sources, fate and modelling.

The Seine river watershed (France) is a deeply anthropogenically impacted area, due to the high population density, intense industrial activities and intensive agriculture. The water quality and ecological functioning of the different rivers of the Seine drainage network have been extensively studied during the last fifteen years within the framework of a large French multidisciplinary scientific program (PIREN Seine program). This paper presents a synthesis of the main data gained in the scope of this program concerning the microbiological water contamination of the rivers of the Seine drainage network. The more common indicator of fecal contamination (fecal coliforms) was mainly used; some complementary works used E. coli and intestinal enterococci as alternative fecal indicators. Point sources (outfall of wastewater treatment plants) and non point sources (surface runoff and soil leaching) of fecal pollution to the rivers of the watershed were quantified. Results showed that, at the scale of a large urbanised watershed as the Seine basin, the input of fecal micro-organisms by non-point sources is much lower than the inputs by point sources. However, the local impact of diffuse non-human sources (especially surface runoff of pastured fields) can be of major importance on the microbiological quality of small headwater rivers. Fecal contamination of the main rivers of the Seine watershed (Seine, Marne, Oise rivers) was studied showing high level of microbiological pollution when compared to European guidelines for bathing waters. The strong negative impact of treated wastewater effluents outfall on the microbiological quality of receiving rivers was observed in different areas of the watershed. Once released in rivers, culturable fecal bacteria disappeared relatively rapidly due to mortality (protozoan grazing, lysis) or loss of culturability induced by stress conditions (sunlight effect, nutrient concentration, temperature). Mortality rates of E. coli were studied in different types of rivers within the watershed showing, in summer conditions, no major difference in the mortality rates in small and large rivers. As a result of these studies, a module describing the dynamics of fecal bacteria has been developed and embedded within a hydro-ecological model describing the functioning of the rivers of the whole watershed (the SENEQUE model). Once validated, such a model can be used for testing predictive scenarios and thus can be a very useful tool for the management of microbiological water quality at the scale of the whole basin.

[1]  P. Grimont,et al.  Oligonucleotide probe for the visualization of Escherichia coli/Escherichia fergusonii cells by in situ hybridization: specificity and potential applications. , 2000, Research in microbiology.

[2]  R. B. Reneau,et al.  Determining Sources of Fecal Pollution in a Rural Virginia Watershed with Antibiotic Resistance Patterns in Fecal Streptococci , 1999, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[3]  O. Sağdıç,et al.  In vitro antibacterial effects of single or combined plant extracts , 2005 .

[4]  R. Gordon,et al.  Transport and deposition of sediment-associated Escherichia coli in natural streams. , 2005, Water research.

[5]  P. Servais,et al.  Survival and mortality of bacteria in natural environments , 1993 .

[6]  Pierre Servais,et al.  Detection and enumeration of coliforms in drinking water: current methods and emerging approaches. , 2002, Journal of microbiological methods.

[7]  P. Servais,et al.  β‐d‐glucuronidase activity assay to assess viable Escherichia coli abundance in freshwaters , 2005, Letters in applied microbiology.

[8]  J. Iriberri,et al.  Grazing on allochthonous vs autochthonous bacteria in river water , 1994 .

[9]  P. Servais,et al.  Use of enzymatic methods for rapid enumeration of coliforms in freshwaters , 2000, Journal of applied microbiology.

[10]  J. Garnier,et al.  Modelling phytoplankton development in whole drainage networks: the RIVERSTRAHLER Model applied to the Seine river system , 1994, Hydrobiologia.

[11]  R. R. Colwell,et al.  Viable but Non-Culturable Vibrio cholerae and Related Pathogens in the Environment: Implications for Release of Genetically Engineered Microorganisms , 1985, Bio/Technology.

[12]  P. Servais,et al.  Quantification of fecal coliform inputs to aquatic systems through soil leaching. , 2004, Water research.

[13]  Winnie W Y Sze,et al.  Rapid assessment of sources of air, water, and land pollution. , 1982, WHO offset publication.

[14]  David Kay,et al.  Faecal-indicator concentrations in waters draining lowland pastoral catchments in the UK: relationships with land use and farming practices. , 2002, Water research.

[15]  J. M. González,et al.  Effect of visible light on progressive dormancy of Escherichia coli cells during the survival process in natural fresh water , 1989, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[16]  D. Kay,et al.  Delivery of microbial indicator organisms to coastal waters from catchment sources , 1996 .

[17]  P. Servais,et al.  Mortality rates of autochthonous and fecal bacteria in natural aquatic ecosystems. , 2003, Water research.

[18]  C. Hunter,et al.  Agricultural land-use effects on the indicator bacterial quality of an upland stream in the Derbyshire peak district in the U.K. , 1999 .

[19]  D. Deere,et al.  Water Quality : Guidelines , Standards and Health , 2003 .

[20]  P. Servais,et al.  Survival of Escherichia coli in freshwater: beta-D-glucuronidase activity measurements and characterization of cellular states. , 2000, Canadian journal of microbiology.

[21]  P. Servais,et al.  Enumeration of viable E. coli in rivers and wastewaters by fluorescent in situ hybridization. , 2004, Journal of microbiological methods.

[22]  A. N. Strahler.  Quantitative analysis of watershed geomorphology , 1957 .

[23]  D. B. Smith,et al.  National Field Evaluation of a Defined Substrate Method for the Simultaneous Enumeration of Total Coliforms and Escherichia coli from Drinking Water: Comparison with the Standard Multiple Tube Fermentation Method , 1988, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[24]  Michel Coste,et al.  Seasonal succession of diatoms and Chlorophyceae in the drainage network of the Seine River: Observation and modeling , 1995 .

[25]  D. Trevisan,et al.  Survival and leaching of fecal bacteria after slurry spreading on mountain hay meadows: consequences for the management of water contamination risk. , 2002, Water research.

[26]  R. Colwell,et al.  Viability and virulençe of Escherichia coli suspended by membrane chamber in semitropical ocean water , 1986 .

[27]  P. Lebaron,et al.  Use of fluorescent probes to assess physiological functions of bacteria at single-cell level. , 2000, Microbes and infection.

[29]  M. R. Overcash,et al.  Transport of potential pollutants in runoff water from land areas receiving animal wastes: A review , 1980 .

[30]  Joan B. Rose,et al.  Removal of pathogenic and indicator microorganisms by a full-scale water reclamation facility , 1996 .

[31]  T. McMeekin,et al.  Relative effects of bacterial and protozoan predators on survival of Escherichia coli in estuarine water samples , 1980, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[32]  M. Exner,et al.  Microbial Load of Drinking Water Reservoir Tributaries during Extreme Rainfall and Runoff , 2002, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[33]  P. Servais,et al.  Distribution of coliforms in the Seine River and estuary (France) studied by rapid enzymatic methods and plate counts , 2001 .

[34]  E. R. Blatchley.  Disinfection and antimicrobial processes , 1993 .

[35]  M. Troussellier,et al.  Dynamics of pollution-indicator and pathogenic bacteria in high-rate oxidation wastewater treatment ponds , 1997 .

[36]  M. Pommepuy,et al.  Enteric Bacteria Survival Factors , 1992 .

[37]  D. Kay,et al.  Non-outfall sources of faecal indicator organisms affecting the compliance of coastal waters with directive 76/160/EEC , 1997 .

[38]  P. Servais,et al.  Use of rapid enzymatic assays to study the distribution of faecal coliforms in the Seine river (France). , 2001, Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research.

[39]  M. Hutchison,et al.  Fate of Escherichia coli originating from livestock faeces deposited directly onto pasture , 2004, Letters in applied microbiology.

[40]  J. Hirn.  Indicator bacteria and Salmonella in food-processing and domestic effluent. , 1980, Journal - Water Pollution Control Federation.

[41]  Mark D Sobsey,et al.  Microbial partitioning to settleable particles in stormwater. , 2005, Water research.

[42]  P. Servais,et al.  Fecal coliform removal in wastewater treatment plants studied by plate counts and enzymatic methods. , 2002, Water research.

[43]  P. Servais,et al.  River ecosystem modelling: application of the PROSE model to the Seine river (France) , 1998, Hydrobiologia.

[44]  R. Colwell,et al.  Viable but nonrecoverable stage of Salmonella enteritidis in aquatic systems. , 1984, Canadian journal of microbiology.

[45]  P. Servais,et al.  Supply of organic matter and bacteria to aquatic ecosystems through waste water effluents , 1999 .

[46]  P. Servais,et al.  An early warning method to detect faecal contamination of river waters , 2005 .

[47]  I. Barcina,et al.  Survival of allochthonous bacteria in aquatic systems: a biological approach , 1997 .

[48]  Jamie Bartram,et al.  Assessment of risk and risk management for water-related infectious disease , 2001 .

[49]  Dwayne R. Edwards,et al.  RUNOFF NUTRIENT AND FECAL COLIFORM CONTENT FROM CATTLE MANURE APPLICATION TO FESCUE PLOTS 1 , 2000 .

[50]  K Kogure,et al.  A tentative direct microscopic method for counting living marine bacteria. , 1979, Canadian journal of microbiology.

[51]  J. García-Lara,et al.  Mortality of fecal bacteria in seawater , 1991, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[52]  S. Y. Newell,et al.  Trophic interactions between heterotrophic Protozoa and bacterioplankton in estuarine water analyzed with selective metabolic inhibitors , 1986 .