TASER ® Conducted Electrical Weapons

John H. “Jack” Cover was the original inventor of TASER CEW technology. Mr. Cover was the Chief Scientist at North American Aerospace when it was the prime contractor for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration’s (NASA’s) Apollo Moon Landing program. Jack was a dedicated physicist who in the 1960s read about President Lyndon Johnson’s Crime Commission report that urged the development of nonlethal weapons development to combat airplane hijacking, riots, and civil unrest. Jack’s quest to develop his first CEW began in 1966 when he developed ECD working models and named them after his favorite childhood character: Tom A. Swift and his Electric Rifle (TASER). TASER CEWs are now used by over 15,000 Law Enforcement agencies worldwide that possess over 550,000 U. As of 1 June 2011, the devices have been used approximately 1.32 million times in the field and 1.25 million times in officer training. These numbers do not include the large numbers of times a CEW was used to resolve a violent encounter simply by its brandishing or by “painting” the suspect with the laser pointer sight.

[1]  P. Tchou,et al.  Presenting rhythm in sudden deaths temporally proximate to discharge of TASER conducted electrical weapons. , 2009, Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.

[2]  D. Zipes,et al.  Phenylephrine Increases T Wave Shock Energy Required to Induce Ventricular Fibrillation , 1998, Journal of cardiovascular electrophysiology.

[3]  J. Jauchem,et al.  Blood factors of Sus scrofa following a series of three TASER electronic control device exposures. , 2008, Forensic science international.

[4]  Jeff Rojek,et al.  The impact of conducted energy devices and other types of force and resistance on officer and suspect injuries , 2007 .

[5]  T. Chan,et al.  Thoracic spine compression fracture after TASER activation. , 2008, The Journal of emergency medicine.

[6]  W. B. Kouwenhoven,et al.  Electric Shock Effects of Frequency , 1936, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

[7]  T. Chan,et al.  Physiological effects of a conducted electrical weapon on human subjects. , 2007, Annals of emergency medicine.

[8]  S. Henderson,et al.  A GITATED D ELIRIUM AND S UDDEN D EATH : T WO C ASE R EPORTS , 2001, Prehospital emergency care : official journal of the National Association of EMS Physicians and the National Association of State EMS Directors.

[9]  J. Fisher,et al.  Clinical Evaluation of the Safety of Repetitive Intraoperative Defibrillation Threshold Testing , 1992, Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE.

[10]  Alexander L. Eastman,et al.  Conductive electrical devices: a prospective, population-based study of the medical safety of law enforcement use. , 2008, The Journal of trauma.

[11]  Summation and Inhibition by Ultrarapid Train Pulses in Dogs: Effects of Frequency and Duration of Trains, Lidocaine, and Beta Blockade , 1989, Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE.

[12]  Hongyu Sun,et al.  Taser Blunt Probe Dart-To-Heart Distance Causing Ventricular Fibrillation in Pigs , 2008, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[13]  V. Hombach,et al.  Direct Current Application: Easy Induction of Ventricular Fibrillation for the Determination of the Defibrillation Threshold in Patients with Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillators , 1992, Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE.

[14]  Raymond E. Ideker,et al.  Activation Patterns of Purkinje Fibers During Long-Duration Ventricular Fibrillation in an Isolated Canine Heart Model , 2007, Circulation.

[15]  Hui-Nam Pak,et al.  Role of the Posterior Papillary Muscle and Purkinje Potentials in the Mechanism of Ventricular Fibrillation in Open Chest Dogs and Swine: Effects of Catheter Ablation , 2006, Journal of cardiovascular electrophysiology.

[16]  E. Racht,et al.  M ANAGEMENT OF THE V IOLENT P ATIENT , 2003, Prehospital emergency care : official journal of the National Association of EMS Physicians and the National Association of State EMS Directors.

[17]  R. Sung,et al.  Determination of ventricular vulnerable period and ventricular fibrillation threshold by use of T-wave shocks in patients undergoing implantation of cardioverter/defibrillators. , 1995, Circulation.

[18]  J. Jauchem,et al.  Acidosis, lactate, electrolytes, muscle enzymes, and other factors in the blood of Sus scrofa following repeated TASER exposures. , 2006, Forensic science international.

[19]  R. Alson,et al.  Thoracic compression fractures as a result of shock from a conducted energy weapon: a case report. , 2007, Annals of emergency medicine.

[20]  J. Jauchem Repeated or long-duration TASER® electronic control device exposures: acidemia and lack of respiration , 2010, Forensic science, medicine, and pathology.

[21]  R. Adams Case of ventricular fibrillation of long duration with recovery; lessons from six cases in prevention and treatment. , 1955, Journal of the American Medical Association.

[22]  J. Ho,et al.  TASER device-induced rhabdomyolysis is unlikely. , 2011, The Journal of emergency medicine.

[23]  L. Saxon,et al.  Taser‐Induced Rapid Ventricular Myocardial Capture Demonstrated by Pacemaker Intracardiac Electrograms , 2007, Journal of cardiovascular electrophysiology.

[24]  R. Moscati,et al.  Prolonged TASER use on exhausted humans does not worsen markers of acidosis. , 2009, The American journal of emergency medicine.

[25]  C. Otto,et al.  Improved Neurological Outcome With Continuous Chest Compressions Compared With 30: 2 Compressions-to-Ventilations Cardiopulmonary Resuscitation in a Realistic Swine Model of Out-of-Hospital Cardiac Arrest , 2007, Circulation.

[26]  S J Stratton,et al.  Factors associated with sudden death of individuals requiring restraint for excited delirium. , 2001, The American journal of emergency medicine.

[27]  O. Z. Roy,et al.  60-Hz Ventricular Fibrillation and Pump Failure Thresholds Versus Electrode Area , 1976, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[28]  J. Miner,et al.  Effect of an electronic control device exposure on a methamphetamine-intoxicated animal model. , 2010, Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.

[29]  G. Moe,et al.  Adrenergic Effects on Ventricular Vulnerability , 1964, Circulation research.

[30]  M. Chehade,et al.  Taser penetrating ocular injury. , 2005, American journal of ophthalmology.

[31]  P. Hinchey,et al.  Pneumothorax as a Complication After TASER Activation , 2009, Prehospital emergency care : official journal of the National Association of EMS Physicians and the National Association of State EMS Directors.

[32]  Hongyu Sun,et al.  Taser Dart-to-Heart Distance That Causes Ventricular Fibrillation in Pigs , 2007, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[33]  E. Downar,et al.  Cardiac electrophysiological consequences of neuromuscular incapacitating device discharges. , 2006, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[34]  H. Hutson,et al.  Use of force by law enforcement: an evaluation of safetyand injury. , 2010, The Journal of trauma.

[35]  R A Malkin,et al.  Cardiovascular collapse caused by electrocardiographically silent 60-Hz intracardiac leakage current. Implications for electrical safety. , 1999, Circulation.

[36]  A. Schwartz,et al.  Electrophysiologic Effects of Cocaine on the Canine Ventricle , 1989, Journal of cardiovascular pharmacology.

[37]  L. Haegeli,et al.  Effect of a Taser shot to the chest of a patient with an implantable defibrillator. , 2006, Heart rhythm.

[38]  S. Zoledziowski,et al.  Ventricular fibrillation threshold for AC shocks of long duration, in dogs with normal acid-base state , 1973, British journal of industrial medicine.

[39]  A. Nanji,et al.  Asystole and ventricular fibrillation associated with cocaine intoxication. , 1984, Chest.

[40]  G. Heusch,et al.  Static filling pressure in patients during induced ventricular fibrillation. , 2003, American journal of physiology. Heart and circulatory physiology.

[41]  J. Comeaux,et al.  Dosimetry considerations for electrical stun devices , 2009, Physics in medicine and biology.

[42]  W. Boyle,et al.  Acute effects of cocaine on catecholamines and cardiac electrophysiology in the conscious dog. , 1988, The Canadian journal of cardiology.

[43]  Andrew F. Hinz,et al.  Cardiac effects of varying pulse charge and polarity of TASER® conducted electrical weapons , 2009, 2009 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[44]  D. Panescu,et al.  Cardiac Current Density Distribution by Electrical Pulses from TASER devices , 2006, 2006 International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[45]  D. Carr,et al.  Ophthalmic injuries from a TASER. , 2009, CJEM.

[46]  A. Lauer,et al.  Perforating ocular injury by Taser , 2006, Clinical & experimental ophthalmology.

[47]  J Jacobsen,et al.  [Experimental studies in pigs on mortality due to sinusoidal and phase-controlled alternating and rectified currents (author's transl)]. , 1975, Biomedizinische Technik. Biomedical engineering.

[48]  T. Chan,et al.  Physiologic effects of the TASER after exercise. , 2009, Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.

[49]  J. Roberts The Medical Effects of TASERs , 2008 .

[50]  R. Reardon Echocardiographic Effects of the CEW , 2009 .

[51]  J. Miner,et al.  Respiratory effect of prolonged electrical weapon application on human volunteers. , 2007, Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.

[52]  S. Karch Cardiac arrest in cocaine users. , 1996, The American journal of emergency medicine.

[53]  J. Brewer,et al.  Cardiac Safety of Neuromuscular Incapacitating Defensive Devices , 2005, Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE.

[54]  Jonathan C. Newton,et al.  The Transmural Activation Sequence in Porcine and Canine Left Ventricle Is Markedly Different During Long‐Duration Ventricular Fibrillation , 2007, Journal of cardiovascular electrophysiology.

[55]  Mark W Kroll,et al.  Electrical Characteristics of an Electronic Control Device Under a Physiologic Load: A Brief Report , 2010, Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE.

[56]  B B Lerman,et al.  Relation between transcardiac and transthoracic current during defibrillation in humans. , 1990, Circulation research.

[57]  H. Sabbah,et al.  The Effect of Cocaine on Ventricular Fibrillation Threshold in the Normal Canine Heart , 1996, Pharmacotherapy.

[58]  T. Chan,et al.  Serum troponin I measurement of subjects exposed to the Taser X-26. , 2008, The Journal of emergency medicine.

[59]  J. Tsai,et al.  Cataract secondary to electrical shock from a Taser gun. , 2007, Journal of cataract and refractive surgery.

[60]  R. Hamlin,et al.  Ventricular activation process in minipigs. , 1975, Journal of Electrocardiology.

[61]  J. Miner,et al.  Echocardiographic evaluation of a TASER-X26 application in the ideal human cardiac axis. , 2008, Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.

[62]  S. Karch,et al.  Myocardial hypertrophy and coronary artery disease in male cocaine users. , 1995, Journal of forensic sciences.

[63]  M. Kroll,et al.  TASER conducted electrical weapons and implanted pacemakers and defibrillators , 2009, 2009 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[64]  G. Weiss Sur la possibilite de rendre comparables entre eux les appareils servant a l'excitation electrique. , 1990 .

[65]  Wei Zhu,et al.  Upper and lower limits of vulnerability to sudden arrhythmic death with chest-wall impact (commotio cordis). , 2003, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[66]  D. Panescu Design and Medical Safety of Neuromuscular Incapacitation Devices [Emerging Technologies] , 2007, IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Magazine.

[67]  G Mirra,et al.  An experimental model of sudden death due to low-energy chest-wall impact (commotio cordis) , 1998, The New England journal of medicine.

[68]  C. Pozner,et al.  The cardiovascular effects of cocaine. , 2005, The Journal of emergency medicine.

[69]  M. Borggrefe,et al.  Fatal Inappropriate ICD Shock , 2007, Journal of cardiovascular electrophysiology.

[70]  S. Karch Stimulant Abuse and Sudden Cardiac Death , 2009 .

[71]  I. Efimov,et al.  Electroporation of Cardiac and Nerve Cells , 2009 .

[72]  V. D. Maio,et al.  Excited Delirium Syndrome , 2009 .

[73]  A. Schmiedl,et al.  Patterns of structural deterioration due to ischemia in Purkinje fibres and different layers of the working myocardium. , 1991, The Thoracic and cardiovascular surgeon.

[74]  G. Biegelmeier,et al.  New considerations on the threshold of ventricular fibrillation for a.c.shocks at 50–60 Hz , 1980 .

[75]  J. S. Noble,et al.  Cocaine‐excited delirium and severe acidosis , 2001, Anaesthesia.

[76]  D. Panescu,et al.  Finite Element Modeling of Electric Field Effects of TASER Devices on Nerve and Muscle , 2006, 2006 International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology Society.

[77]  C. F. Dalziel,et al.  Reevaluation of Lethal Electric Currents , 1968 .

[78]  John M. MacDonald,et al.  The effect of less-lethal weapons on injuries in police use-of-force events. , 2009, American journal of public health.

[79]  J. Ho,et al.  Confirmation of respiration during trapezial conducted electrical weapon application. , 2008, Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.

[80]  D. Panescu,et al.  Physics of Electrical Injury , 2012 .

[81]  B. G. King,et al.  Effect of Electric Shock on the Heart , 1936, Transactions of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers.

[82]  R. Ideker,et al.  Can the Direct Cardiac Effects of the Electric Pulses Generated by the TASER X26 Cause Immediate or Delayed Sudden Cardiac Arrest in Normal Adults? , 2007, The American journal of forensic medicine and pathology.

[83]  Jeffrey D Ho,et al.  Cardiovascular and physiologic effects of conducted electrical weapon discharge in resting adults. , 2006, Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.

[84]  H. Yonas,et al.  Intracranial penetration of a TASER dart. , 2007, The American journal of emergency medicine.

[85]  M. Glikson,et al.  Clinical characteristics of unexpected death among young enlisted military personnel: results of a three-decade retrospective surveillance. , 2004, Chest.

[86]  L. Lehr,et al.  A three-dimensional finite element model of human transthoracic defibrillation: paddle placement and size , 1995, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[87]  A. Qureshi,et al.  Cocaine Use and the Likelihood of Nonfatal Myocardial Infarction and Stroke: Data From the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey , 2001, Circulation.

[88]  Brian P. Martin,et al.  Safety and injury profile of conducted electrical weapons used by law enforcement officers against criminal suspects. , 2009, Annals of emergency medicine.

[89]  Dorin Panescu,et al.  A novel mechanism for electrical currents inducing ventricular fibrillation: The three-fold way to fibrillation , 2010, 2010 Annual International Conference of the IEEE Engineering in Medicine and Biology.

[90]  Dhanunjaya R. Lakkireddy,et al.  Effects of cocaine intoxication on the threshold for stun gun induction of ventricular fibrillation. , 2006, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[91]  L. Y. Shen,et al.  Taser and Taser Associated Injuries: A Case Series , 2008, The American surgeon.

[92]  Brian P. Martin,et al.  204: Injury Profile of Electrical Conducted Energy Weapons , 2007 .

[93]  Jeffrey Jones,et al.  BET 2: CARDIAC MONITORING IN ADULTS AFTER TASER DISCHARGE , 2009, Emergency Medicine Journal.

[94]  M. Lehmann,et al.  Leads for the ICD , 1996 .

[95]  H. Antoni PATHOPHYSIOLOGICAL BASIS OF VENTRICULAR FIBRILLATION , 1985 .

[96]  Tim P. DeMonte,et al.  Measurement of thoracic current flow in pigs for the study of defibrillation and cardioversion , 2003, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[97]  L. Geddes,et al.  Evolution of our knowledge of sudden death due to commotio cordis. , 2005, The American journal of emergency medicine.

[98]  J. Strote,et al.  Taser Use in Restraint-Related Deaths , 2006, Prehospital emergency care : official journal of the National Association of EMS Physicians and the National Association of State EMS Directors.

[99]  D. J. Veldhuisen,et al.  C-reactive protein and microalbuminuria are associated with atrial fibrillation , 2003 .

[100]  J. Sweeney,et al.  The effect of an electronic control device on muscle injury as determined by creatine kinase enzyme , 2011, Forensic science, medicine, and pathology.

[101]  L A Geddes,et al.  Threshold 60-Hz current required for ventricular fibrillation in subjects of various body weights. , 1973, IEEE transactions on bio-medical engineering.

[102]  Julie C. Hottinger,et al.  Lactate and pH evaluation in exhausted humans with prolonged TASER X26 exposure or continued exertion. , 2009, Forensic science international.

[103]  G. Philippides,et al.  Alcoholic and cocaine-associated cardiomyopathies. , 2010, Progress in cardiovascular diseases.

[104]  David O. Martin,et al.  Cardiac Effects of Electrical Stun Guns: Does Position of Barbs Contact Make a Difference? , 2008, Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE.

[105]  O. Z. Roy,et al.  Intracardiac Catheter Fibrillation Thresholds as a Function of the Duration of 60 Hz Current and Electrode Area , 1977, IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering.

[106]  M. T. Bergen,et al.  Cardiovascular Evaluation of Electronic Control Device Exposure in Law Enforcement Trainees: A Multisite Study , 2010, Journal of occupational and environmental medicine.

[107]  P. Schauerte,et al.  Efficacy of transesophageal defibrillation in ventricular fibrillation of long duration. , 2008, The American journal of emergency medicine.

[108]  P. Diamantopoulos,et al.  Electromagnetic modelling of current flow in the heart from TASER devices and the risk of cardiac dysrhythmias , 2007, Physics in medicine and biology.

[109]  K. Nagy,et al.  TASER X26 discharges in swine produce potentially fatal ventricular arrhythmias. , 2008, Academic emergency medicine : official journal of the Society for Academic Emergency Medicine.

[110]  John G Webster,et al.  Safety of pulsed electric devices , 2009, Physiological measurement.

[111]  K. Nagy,et al.  Acute effects of TASER X26 discharges in a swine model. , 2007, The Journal of trauma.

[112]  Arjun D. Sharma,et al.  Shock on T Versus Direct Current Voltage for Induction of Ventricular Fibrillation: , 2004, Pacing and clinical electrophysiology : PACE.

[113]  C. Lau,et al.  Calcium-activated transient outward chloride current and phase 1 repolarization of swine ventricular action potential. , 2003, Cardiovascular research.

[114]  R. Wennberg,et al.  Generalized tonic-clonic seizure after a taser shot to the head , 2009, Canadian Medical Association Journal.

[115]  J. Young,et al.  Unexpected death related to restraint for excited delirium: a retrospective study of deaths in police custody and in the community. , 1998, CMAJ : Canadian Medical Association journal = journal de l'Association medicale canadienne.

[116]  J. Miner,et al.  Echocardiographic evaluation of TASER X26 probe deployment into the chests of human volunteers. , 2010, The American journal of emergency medicine.

[117]  M. Link,et al.  Mechanically induced ventricular fibrillation (commotio cordis). , 2007, Heart rhythm.

[118]  Eric Vittinghoff,et al.  Relation of Taser (electrical stun gun) deployment to increase in in-custody sudden deaths. , 2009, The American journal of cardiology.

[119]  K. Nagy,et al.  Acute effects of MK63 stun device discharges in miniature swine. , 2008, Military medicine.

[120]  P. Fehn,et al.  Comparative anatomical studies of the coronary arteries of canine and porcine hearts. II. Interventricular septum. , 1968, Acta anatomica.