Measurement, Tower, and Site Design Considerations

Although the number of sites making eddy covariance CO2 flux measurements throughout the world has increased rapidly over the last two decades it is still a challenge to define and build a new system. There are myriad options for tower design and placement and a steadily growing range of instrument options and configurations. Selecting among these options is based on finding an optimal solution that best achieves the precision and accuracy required to satisfy the scientific objectives for a site and often for the lowest installation and operational costs. Site design is only the first step to ensuring accuracy and precision of the results.

[1]  D. W. Allan,et al.  Statistics of atomic frequency standards , 1966 .

[2]  G. Campbell,et al.  An Inexpensive Sonic Anemometer for Eddy Correlation , 1979 .

[3]  J. W. Munger,et al.  Preface to special section on New Approaches to Quantifying Exchanges of Carbon and Energy Across a Range of Scales , 2006 .

[4]  E. K. Webb,et al.  Correction of flux measurements for density effects due to heat and water vapour transfer , 1980 .

[5]  J. D. Horn,et al.  THE TOWER SHADOW EFFECT , 1966 .

[6]  T. Spies,et al.  Contrasting microclimates among clearcut, edge, and interior of old-growth Douglas-fir forest , 1993 .

[7]  Xuhui Lee,et al.  On micrometeorological observations of surface-air exchange over tall vegetation , 1998 .

[8]  Donald H. Lenschow,et al.  The attenuation of fluctuations in scalar concentrations through sampling tubes , 1991 .

[9]  T. Foken,et al.  Methods and limitations in validation of footprint models , 2004 .

[10]  Arnaud Carrara,et al.  Biogeosciences Quality control of CarboEurope flux data – Part 1 : Coupling footprint analyses with flux data quality assessment to evaluate sites in forest ecosystems , 2008 .

[11]  J. Wyngaard,et al.  The Effects of Probe-Induced Flow Distortion on Atmospheric Turbulence Measurements , 1981 .

[12]  Georg Wohlfahrt,et al.  Open-path vs. closed-path eddy covariance measurements of the net ecosystem carbon dioxide and water vapour exchange: A long-term perspective , 2009 .

[13]  B. Lamb,et al.  Corrigendum to “Impact of non-local advection on flux footprints over a tall forest canopy: a tracer flux experiment” [Agric. For. Meteorol. 115 (2003) 19–30] , 2003 .

[14]  J. C. Kaimal,et al.  A Continuous Wave Sonic Anemometer-Thermometer , 1963 .

[15]  Corinna Rebmann,et al.  A combination of quality assessment tools for eddy covariance measurements with footprint modelling for the characterisation of complex sites , 2004 .

[16]  M. Leclerc,et al.  Characteristics of Nocturnal Low-Level Jets Observed in the North Florida Area , 2009 .

[17]  T. W. Horst,et al.  Footprint estimation for scalar flux measurements in the atmospheric surface layer , 1992 .

[18]  C. W. Thornthwaite,et al.  Disturbance of airflow around Argus Island tower near Bermuda , 1965 .

[19]  T. Spies,et al.  An empirical model for predicting diurnal air-temperature gradients from edge into old-growth Douglas-fir forest , 1993 .

[20]  Henry W. Loescher,et al.  Design of the AmeriFlux Portable Eddy Covariance System and Uncertainty Analysis of Carbon Measurements , 2007 .

[21]  Henry W. Loescher,et al.  Comparison of temperature and wind statistics in contrasting environments among different sonic anemometer–thermometers , 2005 .

[22]  E. Lemon,et al.  Photosynthesis Under Field Conditions. II. An Aerodynamic Method for Determining the Turbulent Carbon Dioxide Exchange Between the Atmosphere and a Corn Field1 , 1960 .

[23]  J. Monteith,et al.  Principles of Environmental Physics , 2014 .

[24]  T. W. Horst,et al.  How Far is Far Enough?: The Fetch Requirements for Micrometeorological Measurement of Surface Fluxes , 1994 .

[25]  L. H. Allen,et al.  Photosynthesis under field conditions , 1962 .

[26]  G. Burba Correcting apparent off-season CO 2 uptake due to surface heating of an open path gas analyzer: progress report of an ongoing study , 2006 .

[27]  W. Massman Concerning the Measurement of Atmospheric Trace Gas Fluxes with Open- and Closed-Path Eddy Covariance System: The WPL Terms and Spectral Attenuation , 2004 .

[28]  B. Hicks,et al.  Flux‐gradient relationships in the constant flux layer , 1970 .

[29]  L. Olsson,et al.  accuracy of wind measurements on towers or stacks1,2 , 1967 .

[30]  John Foss,et al.  Springer Handbook of Experimental Fluid Mechanics , 2007 .

[31]  Gengsheng Zhang,et al.  Influence of nocturnal low-level jet on turbulence structure and CO2 flux measurements over a forest canopy , 2008 .

[32]  J. Businger,et al.  Preliminary Results Obtained with a Sonic Anemometer-Thermometer , 1963 .

[33]  Monique Y. Leclerc,et al.  Footprint prediction of scalar fluxes from analytical solutions of the diffusion equation , 1990 .

[34]  T. Meyers,et al.  Correction Of Eddy-Covariance Measurements Incorporating Both Advective Effects And Density Fluxes , 2000, Boundary-Layer Meteorology.

[35]  Hans Peter Schmid,et al.  Spatial representativeness and the location bias of flux footprints over inhomogeneous areas , 1999 .

[36]  T. Martin,et al.  The Effect of Local Atmospheric Circulations on Daytime Carbon Dioxide Flux Measurements over a Pinus elliottii Canopy , 2006 .

[37]  T. Foken,et al.  Update of a Footprint-Based Approach for the Characterisation of Complex Measurement Sites , 2006 .

[38]  B. Hicks,et al.  Wind profile relationships from the ‘wangara’ experiment , 1976 .

[39]  B. Lamb,et al.  Impact of non-local advection on flux footprints over a tall forest canopy: a tracer flux experiment , 2003 .

[40]  K. M. King,et al.  Comparison of eddy-covariance measurements of CO2 fluxes by open- and closed-path CO2 analysers , 1992 .

[41]  B L Miller,et al.  WIND EFFECTS ON OFFSHORE PLATFORMS - A SUMMARY OF WIND TUNNEL STUDIES , 1982 .

[42]  G. Katul,et al.  The structure of turbulence near a tall forest edge: the backward-facing step flow analogy revisited. , 2008, Ecological applications : a publication of the Ecological Society of America.

[43]  A. J. Dyer,et al.  Flow distortion by supporting structures , 1981 .

[44]  H. Schmid Source areas for scalars and scalar fluxes , 1994 .

[45]  William J. Massman,et al.  Handbook of micrometeorology : a guide for surface flux measurement and analysis , 2004 .

[46]  J. Wyngaard,et al.  The Effects of Probe-Induced Flow Distortion on Velocity Covariances: Field Observations , 1999 .

[47]  Franz Fiedler,et al.  Turbulence Structure in the Wake Region of a Meteorological Tower , 2003 .

[48]  A. Dolman,et al.  Sonic anemometer (co)sine response and flux measurement I. The potential for (co)sine error to affect sonic anemometer-based flux measurements , 2003 .

[49]  T. Spies,et al.  Vegetation Responses to Edge Environments in Old-Growth Douglas-Fir Forests. , 1992, Ecological applications : a publication of the Ecological Society of America.

[50]  S. P. S. Arya,et al.  Introduction to micrometeorology , 1988 .

[51]  Stephen Whitaker,et al.  Introduction to fluid mechanics , 1981 .

[52]  K. Emery,et al.  Spectral corrections based on optical air mass , 2002, Conference Record of the Twenty-Ninth IEEE Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 2002..

[53]  H. G. Daubek,et al.  Errors in Wind Measurements Associated with Tower-Mounted Anemometers , 1961 .

[54]  H. Loescher,et al.  The Psychrometric Constant Is Not Constant: A Novel Approach to Enhance the Accuracy and Precision of Latent Energy Fluxes through Automated Water Vapor Calibrations , 2009 .

[55]  John H. C. Gash,et al.  Amazonian deforestation and climate , 1997 .

[56]  M. G. Hodnett,et al.  The Albedo of Amazonian Forest and Ranch Land , 1995 .

[57]  Heather J. Ruskin,et al.  The effect of a meteorological tower on its top-mounted anemometer , 2007 .

[58]  Henry W. Loescher,et al.  Uncertainties in, and interpretation of, carbon flux estimates using the eddy covariance technique , 2006 .

[59]  R. Kormann,et al.  An Analytical Footprint Model For Non-Neutral Stratification , 2001 .

[60]  J. Kaimal,et al.  Minimizing flow distortion errors in a sonic anemometer , 1990 .

[61]  Thomas W. Horst Comment on `Footprint Analysis: A Closed Analytical Solution Based on Height-Dependent Profiles of Wind Speed and Eddy Viscosity' , 2001 .

[62]  Ray Leuning,et al.  The correct form of the Webb, Pearman and Leuning equation for eddy fluxes of trace gases in steady and non-steady state, horizontally homogeneous flows , 2007 .

[63]  N. Tsuda,et al.  What Are We Measuring on the Top of a Tower , 1957 .