On-Road Evaluation of Intelligent Speed Adaptation, Following Distance Warning and Seatbelt Reminder Systems: Final Results of the TAC SafeCar Project

The project had several aims: to evaluate the technical operation of a number of ITS technologies with high estimated safety potential; to assess the acceptability to drivers of these technologies; and to evaluate, in an on-road setting, the impact of these technologies, alone and in combination, on driver performance and safety. The project also involved a study that examined, in an advanced driving simulator, the effects on driving performance of two variants of Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA). This report documents the design, methodology and final outcomes of Phase 4 of the project, which involved the deployment and on-road evaluation of four ITS technologies equipped to 15 Ford passenger cars (referred to as SafeCars). The four technologies were: Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA); Following Distance Warning (FDW); Seatbelt Reminder (SBR) and Reverse Collision Warning (RCW). During the trial, the treatment drivers were exposed to all four ITS technologies, while the control drivers were exposed to the SBR and RCW systems only. Each SafeCar was equipped with a data logging system which automatically recorded a range of driving performance measures. This report presents the findings that derived from the logged driving data and from the subjective data on drivers perceived acceptability and usability of the SafeCar systems. (a)

[1]  András Várhelyi.  Speed management via in-car devices: effects, implications, perspectives , 2002 .

[2]  O M J Carsten,et al.  Intelligent speed adaptation: accident savings and cost-benefit analysis. , 2005, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[3]  Thomas A. Dingus,et al.  HUMAN FACTORS DESIGN ISSUES FOR CRASH AVOIDANCE SYSTEMS , 1998 .

[4]  Andras Varhelyi,et al.  Evaluation of in-car speed limiters – Final report , 1998 .

[5]  A. Greenwald,et al.  On doing two things at once: III. Confirmation of perfect timesharing when simultaneous tasks are ideomotor compatible. , 2003, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[6]  P Gustafsson.  ISA: INTELLIGENT SPEED ADAPTATION: WHO WANTS IT? , 1997 .

[7]  Andras Varhelyi,et al.  Speed regulation by in-car active accelerator pedal – Effects on driver behaviour , 2004 .

[8]  Kristie Lee Young,et al.  A Review of Literature and Trials of Intelligent Speed Adaptation Devices for Light and Heavy Vehicles , 2003 .

[9]  S. Hart,et al.  Development of NASA-TLX (Task Load Index): Results of Empirical and Theoretical Research , 1988 .

[10]  Thomas J Triggs,et al.  Driving simulator validation for speed research. , 2002, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[11]  E Mitsopoulos,et al.  BEHAVIOURAL ADAPTATION TO IN-CAR ITS TECHNOLOGIES: UPDATE ON THE AUSTRALIAN TAC SAFECAR PROJECT , 2001 .

[12]  Andras Varhelyi,et al.  The effects of Large Scale use of active accelerator pedal in urban areas , 2002 .

[13]  Ronald R. Knipling,et al.  Assessment of IVHS countermeasures for collision avoidance : rear-end crashes , 1993 .

[14]  P T Cairney,et al.  ROAD USER BEHAVIOURS WHICH CONTRIBUTE TO ACCIDENTS AT URBAN ARTERIAL/LOCAL INTERSECTIONS , 1991 .

[15]  Brian N. Fildes,et al.  Benefits of retrofitting seat belt reminder systems to Australian passenger vehicles , 2003 .

[16]  Narelle L. Haworth,et al.  Safety attitudes and behaviours in work-related driving: stage 1: analyses of crash data , 2005 .

[17]  David Shinar,et al.  Minimum and Comfortable Driving Headways: Reality versus Perception , 2001, Hum. Factors.

[18]  E Mitsopoulos,et al.  EVALUATING MULTIPLE IN-VEHICLE INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS: THE MEASUREMENT OF DRIVER ACCEPTABILITY, WORKLOAD, AND ATTITUDES IN THE TAC SAFECAR ON-ROAD STUDY , 2003 .

[19]  Sverker Almqvist,et al.  Dynamic speed adaptation : a field trial with automatic speed adaptation in an urban area , 1997 .

[20]  Kristie Lee Young,et al.  ACCEPTABILITY TO YOUNG DRIVERS OF IN-VEHICLE INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS , 2004 .

[21]  D Poole.  DAYTIME RUNNING LIGHTS: SMALL-SCALE FLEET STUDY , 1999 .

[22]  Torbjorn Biding,et al.  INTELLIGENT SPEED ADAPTATION (ISA) : RESULTS OF LARGE-SCALE TRIALS IN BORLANGE, LIDKOPING, LUND AND UMEA DURING 1999-2002 , 2002 .

[23]  Oliver Carsten,et al.  INTELLIGENT SPEED ADAPTATION: THE BEST COLLISION AVOIDANCE SYSTEM? , 2001 .

[24]  Claes Tingvall,et al.  TRIAL AND EVALUATION OF INTEGRATED IN-CAR ITS TECHNOLOGIES: REPORT ON AN AUSTRALIAN RESEARCH PROGRAM , 2000 .

[25]  A Johansson.  INTELLIGENT SPEED ADAPTATION , 1999 .

[26]  Karel Brookhuis,et al.  Limiting speed, towards an intelligent speed adapter (ISA) , 1999 .

[27]  Magnus Hjälmdahl,et al.  IN-VEHICLE SPEED ADAPTATION. ON THE EFFECTIVENESS OF A VOLUNTARY SYSTEM , 2004 .

[28]  Jakob Nielsen,et al.  Usability engineering , 1997, The Computer Science and Engineering Handbook.

[29]  Mark S. Sanders,et al.  Human factors in engineering and design, 7th ed. , 1993 .

[30]  Claes Tingvall,et al.  Development and Trial of a Method to Investigate the Acceptability of Seat Belt Reminder Systems , 2000 .

[31]  Thomas J Triggs,et al.  Intelligent transport systems: update on the Australian TAC SafeCar project , 2001 .

[32]  L. Evans.  Safety-belt effectiveness: the influence of crash severity and selective recruitment. , 1996, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[33]  J Sundberg.  SMART SPEED - RESULTS FROM THE LARGE SCALE FIELD TRIAL ON INTELLIGENT SPEED ADAPTATION IN UME, SWEDEN , 2001 .

[34]  Thomas J Triggs,et al.  Impact on driving performance of intelligent speed adaptation, following distance warning and seatbelt reminder systems: key findings from the TAC SafeCar Project , 2006 .

[35]  G T Taoka.  BREAK REACTION TIMES OF UNALERTED DRIVERS , 1989 .

[36]  David Shinar,et al.  Effects of an In-Vehicle Collision Avoidance Warning System on Short- and Long-Term Driving Performance , 2002, Hum. Factors.

[37]  Göran Nilsson,et al.  Traffic Safety Dimensions and the Power Model to Describe the Effect of Speed on Safety , 2004 .

[38]  Brian N. Fildes,et al.  Benefits of seat belt reminder systems. , 2002, Annual proceedings. Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine.

[39]  T J Triggs,et al.  THE AUSTRALIAN TAC SAFECAR PROJECT: ON-ROAD EVALUATION OF MULTIPLE IN-CAR ITS , 2002 .

[40]  Samantha L Comte.  New systems: new behaviour? , 2000 .

[41]  L Tijerina,et al.  Examination of backing crashes and potential IVHS countermeasures , 1993 .

[42]  Michael Paine,et al.  YOUNG PEDESTRIANS AND REVERSING MOTOR VEHICLES , 2001 .

[43]  A Ferdinands.  Intelligent transport systems and road safety , 1999 .

[44]  Allan F Williams,et al.  Drivers' Assessment of Ford's Belt Reminder System , 2003, Traffic injury prevention.

[45]  S L Comte.  Response to automatic speed control in urban areas:A simulator study. , 1996 .

[46]  Claes Tingvall,et al.  INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS: SAFETY AND HUMAN FACTORS ISSUES , 2001 .

[47]  Fred D. Davis.  Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology , 1989, MIS Q..

[48]  David Shinar,et al.  Headway Feedback Improves Intervehicular Distance: A Field Study , 2002, Hum. Factors.

[49]  E Mitsopoulos,et al.  HUMAN FACTORS AND IN-VEHICLE INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS: AN AUSTRALIAN CASE STUDY IN USABILITY TESTING , 2001 .

[50]  T Styles,et al.  REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ON DAYTIME RUNNING LIGHTS (DRL) , 2003 .

[51]  Andras Varhelyi,et al.  SPEED REGULATION BY IN-CAR ACTIVE ACCELERATOR PEDAL : EFFECTS ON SPEED AND SPEED DISTRIBUTION , 2002 .

[52]  S. Fairclough,et al.  The effect of time headway feedback on following behaviour. , 1997, Accident; analysis and prevention.

[53]  David Shinar,et al.  Imperfect In-Vehicle Collision Avoidance Warning Systems Can Aid Drivers , 2004, Hum. Factors.

[54]  Michael Sivak,et al.  Radar-Measured Reaction Times of Unalerted Drivers to Brake Signals , 1982 .

[55]  Max Cameron,et al.  THE FEASIBILITY OF IDENTIFYING SPEEDING-RELATED AND FATIGUE-RELATED CRASHES IN POLICE-REPORTED MASS CRASH DATA , 2003 .

[56]  G. Keppel,et al.  Design and Analysis: A Researcher's Handbook , 1976 .

[57]  N J Ward,et al.  Simulation of accident risk displays in motorway driving with traffic. , 1998, Ergonomics.

[58]  Thomas A. Dingus,et al.  The Impact of Driver Inattention on Near-Crash/Crash Risk: An Analysis Using the 100-Car Naturalistic Driving Study Data , 2006 .

[59]  L. Åberg,et al.  Dimensions of aberrant driver behaviour. , 1998, Ergonomics.

[60]  Susan G. Hill,et al.  Traditional and raw task load index (TLX) correlations: Are paired comparisons necessary? In A , 1989 .

[61]  J Sundberg.  LARGE SCALE FIELD TRIAL ON INTELLIGENT SPEED ADAPTATION IN UMEA, SWEDEN , 1999 .

[62]  Andras Varhelyi.  Large-scale trial with Intelligent Speed Adaptation (ISA). , 1999 .

[63]  Harri Peltola,et al.  INTELLIGENT SPEED ADAPTATION - EFFECTS ON DRIVING BEHAVIOUR , 2001 .

[64]  Harry Lahrmann,et al.  Intelligent speed adaptation: Development of a GPS based ISA-system and field trail of the system with 24 test drivers , 1996 .

[65]  Jeff Harpster,et al.  BACKUP WARNING SIGNALS: DRIVER PERCEPTION AND RESPONSE , 1996 .

[66]  Michael J. Flannagan,et al.  RISK OF FATAL REAR-END COLLISIONS: IS THERE MORE TO IT THAN ATTENTION? , 2005 .

[67]  David Shinar,et al.  Driver Performance with a Collision Avoidance System , 2000 .

[68]  Christer Hydén,et al.  USE OF SPEED LIMITERS IN CARS FOR INCREASED SAFETY AND A BETTER ENVIRONMENT , 1991 .

[69]  O Carsten.  ISA - FROM FIELD TRIALS TO REALITY , 2004 .

[70]  Thomas A. Dingus,et al.  Human Factors Field Evaluation of Automotive Headway Maintenance/Collision Warning Devices , 1997, Hum. Factors.

[71]  A. Greenwald,et al.  On doing two things at once: time sharing as a function of ideomotor compatibility. , 1972, Journal of experimental psychology.

[72]  G Lind.  INFORMATIVE OR ACTIVELY SUPPORTING ISA SYSTEMS? PRELIMINARY RESULTS FROM ISA TRIALS IN SWEDEN , 2000 .

[73]  Michael A. Regan,et al.  ACCEPTABILITY OF IN-VEHICLE INTELLIGENT TRANSPORT SYSTEMS TO VICTORIAN CAR DRIVERS , 2002 .

[74]  Michael A. Regan,et al.  Impact on Car Driving Performance of a Following Distance Warning System: Findings from the Australian Transport Accident Commission SafeCar Project , 2007, J. Intell. Transp. Syst..

[75]  Mark S. Sanders,et al.  Human Factors in Engineering and Design , 1957 .

[76]  Ronald R Knipling,et al.  REAR-END CRASHES: PROBLEM SIZE ASSESSMENT AND STATISTICAL DESCRIPTION. TECHNICAL REPORT , 1993 .

[77]  N Stone,et al.  ELECTRONIC TAILGATING DETERRENTS: THE 'TWO SECOND GAP' PROJECT , 2000 .

[78]  U Björnstig,et al.  Use of seat belts in cars with different seat belt reminder systems. A study of injured car drivers. , 2001, Annual proceedings. Association for the Advancement of Automotive Medicine.

[79]  Matthew Robert Justin Baldock,et al.  Rear end crashes , 2005 .