Gold nanoparticles: From nanomedicine to nanosensing.

Because of their photo-optical distinctiveness and biocompatibility, gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have proven to be powerful tools in various nanomedicinal and nanomedical applications. In this review article, we discuss recent advances in the application of AuNPs in diagnostic imaging, biosensing and binary cancer therapeutic techniques. We also provide an eclectic collection of AuNPs delivery strategies, including assorted classes of delivery vehicles, which are showing great promise in specific targeting of AuNPs to diseased tissues. However, successful clinical implementations of the promised applications of AuNPs are still hampered by many barriers. In particular, more still needs to be done regarding our understanding of the pharmacokinetics and toxicological profiles of AuNPs and AuNPs-conjugates.

[1]  Kae Sato,et al.  Non-cross-linking gold nanoparticle aggregation as a detection method for single-base substitutions , 2005, Nucleic acids research.

[2]  P. M. Tomchuk,et al.  Optical absorption by small metallic particles , 1997 .

[3]  C. Kumar.  Nanomaterials for cancer diagnosis , 2007 .

[4]  Xiaohua Huang,et al.  Selective laser photo-thermal therapy of epithelial carcinoma using anti-EGFR antibody conjugated gold nanoparticles. , 2006, Cancer letters.

[5]  Michael J. Natan,et al.  Hydroxylamine Seeding of Colloidal Au Nanoparticles in Solution and on Surfaces , 1998 .

[6]  V. Rotello,et al.  Drug and gene delivery using gold nanoparticles , 2007 .

[7]  D. Balding,et al.  HLA Sequence Polymorphism and the Origin of Humans , 2006 .

[8]  Thommey P. Thomas,et al.  PAMAM dendrimer-based multifunctional conjugate for cancer therapy: synthesis, characterization, and functionality. , 2006, Biomacromolecules.

[9]  Olivier Beuf,et al.  Design of Gold Nanoparticles for Magnetic Resonance Imaging , 2006 .

[10]  K. G. Thomas,et al.  Functionalized gold nanoparticles as phosphorescent nanomaterials and sensors. , 2006, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[11]  Xiaohua Huang,et al.  Peptide-conjugated gold nanorods for nuclear targeting. , 2007, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[12]  Jesus M de la Fuente,et al.  Nanoparticle targeting at cells. , 2006, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[13]  A. Alivisatos,et al.  Melting in Semiconductor Nanocrystals , 1992, Science.

[14]  S. Ghosh,et al.  Anisotropic growth of gold clusters to gold nanocubes under UV irradiation , 2007, Nanotechnology.

[15]  Vladimir P Zharov,et al.  Covalently linked Au nanoparticles to a viral vector: potential for combined photothermal and gene cancer therapy. , 2006, Nano letters.

[16]  I. Hizoh,et al.  Radiocontrast-Induced Renal Tubular Cell Apoptosis: Hypertonic Versus Oxidative Stress , 2002, Investigative radiology.

[17]  Jinwoo Cheon,et al.  Artificially engineered magnetic nanoparticles for ultra-sensitive molecular imaging , 2007, Nature Medicine.

[18]  Edward R. T. Tiekink,et al.  Metallotherapeutic Drugs and Metal-Based Diagnostic Agents: The Use of Metals in Medicine , 2005 .

[19]  Catherine J. Murphy,et al.  An Improved Synthesis of High‐Aspect‐Ratio Gold Nanorods , 2003 .

[20]  R. Streicher,et al.  Nanosurfaces and nanostructures for artificial orthopedic implants. , 2007, Nanomedicine.

[21]  Stella M. Marinakos,et al.  Gold particles as templates for the synthesis of hollow polymer capsules. Control of capsule dimensions and guest encapsulation , 1999 .

[22]  Chao-Liang Wu,et al.  Methotrexate conjugated to gold nanoparticles inhibits tumor growth in a syngeneic lung tumor model. , 2007, Molecular pharmaceutics.

[23]  A. Dasgupta,et al.  Protein seeding of gold nanoparticles and mechanism of glycation sensing. , 2007, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[24]  Patrick Winter,et al.  Nanomedicine Opportunities in Cardiology , 2006, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[25]  H. Maeda,et al.  Tumor vascular permeability and the EPR effect in macromolecular therapeutics: a review. , 2000, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[26]  N. Tanaka,et al.  Single-step synthesis of gold-silver alloy nanoparticles in ionic liquids by a sputter deposition technique. , 2008, Chemical communications.

[27]  M. Saif,et al.  Epidermal growth factor receptor inhibition strategies in pancreatic cancer: past, present and the future. , 2007, JOP : Journal of the pancreas.

[28]  Yingfu Li,et al.  Enzymatic cleavage of nucleic acids on gold nanoparticles: a generic platform for facile colorimetric biosensors. , 2008, Small.

[29]  M. Grunze,et al.  Factors that determine the protein resistance of oligoether self-assembled monolayers --internal hydrophilicity, terminal hydrophilicity, and lateral packing density. , 2003, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[30]  P. Jain,et al.  Gold nanoparticles: interesting optical properties and recent applications in cancer diagnostics and therapy. , 2007, Nanomedicine.

[31]  A. L. Crumbliss,et al.  Comparison of colloidal gold electrode fabrication methods: the preparation of a horseradish peroxidase enzyme electrode. , 1992, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[32]  C. Feldherr,et al.  The permeability of the nuclear envelope in dividing and nondividing cell cultures , 1990, The Journal of cell biology.

[33]  Charles DiMarzio,et al.  Surface functionalization of gold nanoparticles using hetero-bifunctional poly(ethylene glycol) spacer for intracellular tracking and delivery , 2006, International journal of nanomedicine.

[34]  V. Rotello,et al.  Biomimetic interactions of proteins with functionalized nanoparticles: a thermodynamic study. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[35]  Ming Zheng,et al.  Ethylene glycol monolayer protected nanoparticles for eliminating nonspecific binding with biological molecules. , 2003, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[36]  R. J. Lee,et al.  Targeted drug delivery via the folate receptor. , 2000, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[37]  D. Maysinger,et al.  Nanoparticles and cells: good companions and doomed partnerships. , 2007, Organic & biomolecular chemistry.

[38]  James R Baker,et al.  Dendrimer-entrapped gold nanoparticles as a platform for cancer-cell targeting and imaging. , 2007, Small.

[39]  Thomas H. Parker,et al.  What is π , 1991 .

[40]  K. Maruyama,et al.  Size-dependent extravasation and interstitial localization of polyethyleneglycol liposomes in solid tumor-bearing mice. , 1999, International journal of pharmaceutics.

[41]  D. Kranz,et al.  Folate-mediated targeting of T cells to tumors. , 2004, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[42]  J. Storhoff,et al.  Selective colorimetric detection of polynucleotides based on the distance-dependent optical properties of gold nanoparticles. , 1997, Science.

[43]  R. Salgia,et al.  Epidermal growth factor receptor mutations and susceptibility to targeted therapy in lung cancer , 2006, Respirology.

[44]  K. Sokolov,et al.  Two-photon luminescence imaging of cancer cells using molecularly targeted gold nanorods. , 2007, Nano letters.

[45]  Wei Qian,et al.  The potential use of the enhanced nonlinear properties of gold nanospheres in photothermal cancer therapy , 2007, Lasers in surgery and medicine.

[46]  Yanli Liu,et al.  Cellular trajectories of peptide-modified gold particle complexes: comparison of nuclear localization signals and peptide transduction domains. , 2004, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[47]  Christlieb Haller,et al.  The Cytotoxicity of Iodinated Radiocontrast Agents on Renal Cells In Vitro , 2004, Investigative radiology.

[48]  Jean-Michel Friedt,et al.  Biosensing based on light absorption of nanoscaled gold and silver particles. , 2003, Analytical chemistry.

[49]  Reynaldo Villalonga,et al.  Supramolecular chemistry of cyclodextrins in enzyme technology. , 2007, Chemical reviews.

[50]  M. Perry,et al.  Epidermal Growth Factor Receptor-Targeted Therapy for Pancreatic Cancer , 2007, Cancer investigation.

[51]  S. Chah,et al.  Gold nanoparticles as a colorimetric sensor for protein conformational changes. , 2005, Chemistry & biology.

[52]  Philip S Low,et al.  In vitro and in vivo two-photon luminescence imaging of single gold nanorods. , 2005, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[53]  Sangjin Park,et al.  Antibiofouling polymer-coated gold nanoparticles as a contrast agent for in vivo X-ray computed tomography imaging. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[54]  D. Choquet,et al.  Single metallic nanoparticle imaging for protein detection in cells , 2003, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[55]  May D. Wang,et al.  In vivo tumor targeting and spectroscopic detection with surface-enhanced Raman nanoparticle tags , 2008, Nature Biotechnology.

[56]  Catherine J. Murphy,et al.  CONTROLLING THE ASPECT RATIO OF INORGANIC NANORODS AND NANOWIRES , 2002 .

[57]  Dakrong Pissuwan,et al.  A golden bullet? Selective targeting of Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites using antibody-functionalized gold nanorods. , 2007, Nano letters.

[58]  C. Shaw III.  Gold-based therapeutic agents. , 1999, Chemical reviews.

[59]  Nastassja A. Lewinski,et al.  Cytotoxicity of nanoparticles. , 2008, Small.

[60]  R. T. Hill,et al.  Enzyme-nanoparticle functionalization of three-dimensional protein scaffolds. , 2006, Analytical chemistry.

[61]  S. Nie,et al.  Therapeutic Nanoparticles for Drug Delivery in Cancer Types of Nanoparticles Used as Drug Delivery Systems , 2022 .

[62]  G M Whitesides,et al.  Using self-assembled monolayers to understand the interactions of man-made surfaces with proteins and cells. , 1996, Annual review of biophysics and biomolecular structure.

[63]  M. Woodle,et al.  New amphipatic polymer-lipid conjugates forming long-circulating reticuloendothelial system-evading liposomes. , 1994, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[64]  S. Feng,et al.  A novel controlled release formulation for the anticancer drug paclitaxel (Taxol): PLGA nanoparticles containing vitamin E TPGS. , 2003, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[65]  P. Das,et al.  In situ Preparation of Gold Nanoparticles of Varying Shape in Molecular Hydrogel of Peptide Amphiphiles , 2008 .

[66]  T. M. Day,et al.  Luminescent nanobeads: attachment of surface reactive Eu(III) complexes to gold nanoparticles. , 2006, Chemical communications.

[67]  M. El-Sayed,et al.  Gold and silver nanoparticles in sensing and imaging: sensitivity of plasmon response to size, shape, and metal composition. , 2006, The journal of physical chemistry. B.

[68]  Feldmann,et al.  Drastic reduction of plasmon damping in gold nanorods. , 2002, Physical review letters.

[69]  Phil McFadden,et al.  Broadband Biodetection: Holmes on a Chip , 2002, Science.

[70]  R. Gillies,et al.  Microenvironmental and cellular consequences of altered blood flow in tumours. , 2003, The British journal of radiology.

[71]  Valérie Cabuil,et al.  Generation of superparamagnetic liposomes revealed as highly efficient MRI contrast agents for in vivo imaging. , 2005, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[72]  Hongzhe Sun,et al.  Transferrin-mediated gold nanoparticle cellular uptake. , 2005, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[73]  U. Hieber,et al.  Tumor necrosis factor for the treatment of malignancies. , 1994, Oncology.

[74]  N. G. Khlebtsov,et al.  The effect of the size, shape, and structure of metal nanoparticles on the dependence of their optical properties on the refractive index of a disperse medium , 2005 .

[75]  D. Richards,et al.  GOLD AND ITS RELATIONSHIP TO NEUROLOGICAL/GLANDULAR CONDITIONS , 2002, The International journal of neuroscience.

[76]  Chung-Yuan Mou,et al.  Bifunctional magnetic silica nanoparticles for highly efficient human stem cell labeling. , 2007, Nano letters.

[77]  Jennifer L. West,et al.  Immunonanoshells for targeted photothermal ablation in medulloblastoma and glioma: an in vitro evaluation using human cell lines , 2007, Journal of Neuro-Oncology.

[78]  Ralph Weissleder,et al.  Tat peptide-derivatized magnetic nanoparticles allow in vivo tracking and recovery of progenitor cells , 2000, Nature Biotechnology.

[79]  Xiaohua Huang,et al.  Surface plasmon resonance scattering and absorption of anti-EGFR antibody conjugated gold nanoparticles in cancer diagnostics: applications in oral cancer. , 2005, Nano letters.

[80]  C. Arteaga.  The epidermal growth factor receptor: from mutant oncogene in nonhuman cancers to therapeutic target in human neoplasia. , 2001, Journal of clinical oncology : official journal of the American Society of Clinical Oncology.

[81]  Theresa A. Good,et al.  Nanoparticle-based optical biosensors for the direct detection of organophosphate chemical warfare agents and pesticides , 2005 .

[82]  Hui Zhang,et al.  Immuno gold nanocages with tailored optical properties for targeted photothermal destruction of cancer cells. , 2007, Nano letters.

[83]  Byron Ballou,et al.  Noninvasive imaging of quantum dots in mice. , 2004, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[84]  Hua Ai,et al.  Multifunctional polymeric micelles as cancer-targeted, MRI-ultrasensitive drug delivery systems. , 2006, Nano letters.

[85]  E. A. Havell,et al.  The antitumor function of tumor necrosis factor (TNF) II. Analysis of the role of endogenous TNF in endotoxin-induced hemorrhagic necrosis and regression of an established sarcoma , 1988, The Journal of experimental medicine.

[86]  Erkki Ruoslahti,et al.  Nanocrystal targeting in vivo , 2002, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[87]  James R Heath,et al.  Nanotechnology and cancer. , 2008, Annual review of medicine.

[88]  G. Hahn,et al.  Mechanism of Antitumor Activity of Tumor Necrosis Factor α With Hyperthermia in a Tumor Necrosis Factor α-Resistant Tumor , 1990 .

[89]  Lawrence Tamarkin,et al.  Colloidal Gold: A Novel Nanoparticle Vector for Tumor Directed Drug Delivery , 2004, Drug delivery.

[90]  Immobilization of hexa-arginine tagged esterase onto carboxylated gold nanoparticles. , 2005, Chemical communications.

[91]  Enzo Terreno,et al.  Lanthanide(III) chelates for NMR biomedical applications , 1998 .

[92]  Isabelle Raynal,et al.  Macrophage Endocytosis of Superparamagnetic Iron Oxide Nanoparticles: Mechanisms and Comparison of Ferumoxides and Ferumoxtran-10 , 2004, Investigative radiology.

[93]  K. Jain,et al.  Nanomedicine: Application of Nanobiotechnology in Medical Practice , 2008, Medical Principles and Practice.

[94]  N. Tsuji,et al.  Enhancement of Blood Stasis and Vascular Permeability in Meth‐A Tumors by Administration of Hyperthermia in Combination with Tumor Necrosis Factor , 1994, Japanese journal of cancer research : Gann.

[95]  S. Sahoo,et al.  Nanotech approaches to drug delivery and imaging. , 2003, Drug discovery today.

[96]  E. Zubarev,et al.  Paclitaxel-functionalized gold nanoparticles. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[97]  R. Peters.  Nanoscopic medicine: the next frontier. , 2006, Small.

[98]  Markus Antonietti,et al.  Sol−Gel Nanocoating: An Approach to the Preparation of Structured Materials , 2001 .

[99]  K. Kono,et al.  Preparation of poly(ethylene glycol)-modified poly(amido amine) dendrimers encapsulating gold nanoparticles and their heat-generating ability. , 2007, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[100]  Bing Zhao,et al.  Seed-mediated growth of large, monodisperse core-shell gold-silver nanoparticles with Ag-like optical properties. , 2002, Chemical communications.

[101]  S. Nie,et al.  Luminescent quantum dots for multiplexed biological detection and imaging. , 2002, Current opinion in biotechnology.

[102]  Xingde Li,et al.  Gold nanocages for cancer detection and treatment. , 2007, Nanomedicine.

[103]  M. Amiji,et al.  Nanoparticulate carriers for the treatment of coronary restenosis , 2007, International journal of nanomedicine.

[104]  Do Kyung Kim,et al.  Antibiofouling polymer-coated superparamagnetic iron oxide nanoparticles as potential magnetic resonance contrast agents for in vivo cancer imaging. , 2006, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[105]  I. Hamerton,et al.  Analytical detection and biological assay of antileukemic drug using gold nanoparticles , 2006 .

[106]  W. Richardson,et al.  Sequence requirements for nuclear location of simian virus 40 large-T antigen , 1984, Nature.

[107]  W. Fiers,et al.  In vivo anti‐tumour activity of recombinant human and murine TNF, alone and in combination with murine IFN‐γ, on a syngeneic murine melanoma , 1986, International journal of cancer.

[108]  P. Stein,et al.  Gold as an implant in medicine and dentistry. , 2005, Journal of long-term effects of medical implants.

[109]  K. Hamad-Schifferli,et al.  Labeling ribonuclease S with a 3 nm Au nanoparticle by two-step assembly. , 2005, Nano letters.

[110]  Xiaohua Huang,et al.  Cancer cell imaging and photothermal therapy in the near-infrared region by using gold nanorods. , 2006, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[111]  Patrick Asbach,et al.  Behavior of metal implants used in ENT surgery in 7 Tesla magnetic resonance imaging , 2006, European Archives of Oto-Rhino-Laryngology and Head & Neck.

[112]  Itamar Willner,et al.  Biomolecule-nanoparticle hybrids as functional units for nanobiotechnology. , 2007, Chemical communications.

[113]  Vladimir P. Torchilin,et al.  Immunomicelles: Targeted pharmaceutical carriers for poorly soluble drugs , 2003, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[114]  G. Frens.  Controlled Nucleation for the Regulation of the Particle Size in Monodisperse Gold Suspensions , 1973 .

[115]  Brahim Lounis,et al.  Photothermal Imaging of Nanometer-Sized Metal Particles Among Scatterers , 2002, Science.

[116]  Robert A Freitas,et al.  What is nanomedicine? , 2005, Disease-a-month : DM.

[117]  Robert J. Lee,et al.  A Folate Receptor–Targeted Lipid Nanoparticle Formulation for a Lipophilic Paclitaxel Prodrug , 2004, Pharmaceutical Research.

[118]  T M Allen,et al.  Liposomes containing synthetic lipid derivatives of poly(ethylene glycol) show prolonged circulation half-lives in vivo. , 1991, Biochimica et biophysica acta.

[119]  R. P. Andres,et al.  Synthesis and grafting of thioctic acid-PEG-folate conjugates onto Au nanoparticles for selective targeting of folate receptor-positive tumor cells. , 2006, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[120]  Patricia L. Harris,et al.  Activating mutations in the epidermal growth factor receptor underlying responsiveness of non-small-cell lung cancer to gefitinib. , 2004, The New England journal of medicine.

[121]  Hsin-Chih Yeh,et al.  Quantum dot-mediated biosensing assays for specific nucleic acid detection. , 2005, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[122]  C. Mirkin,et al.  Photoinduced Conversion of Silver Nanospheres to Nanoprisms , 2001, Science.

[123]  Shuping Dong,et al.  Fluorescently labeled cellulose nanocrystals for bioimaging applications. , 2007, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[124]  Yanli Liu,et al.  Synthesis, stability, and cellular internalization of gold nanoparticles containing mixed peptide-poly(ethylene glycol) monolayers. , 2007, Analytical chemistry.

[125]  M. Bruze,et al.  Contact allergy to gold in patients with gold‐plated intracoronary stents , 2005, Contact dermatitis.

[126]  Vladimir P Zharov,et al.  Self-assembling nanoclusters in living systems: application for integrated photothermal nanodiagnostics and nanotherapy. , 2005, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[127]  Elazer R. Edelman,et al.  Gold-Coated NIR Stents in Porcine Coronary Arteries , 2001, Circulation.

[128]  K. Overton,et al.  Cellular uptake of gold nanoparticles passivated with BSA-SV40 large T antigen conjugates. , 2007, Analytical chemistry.

[129]  Younan Xia,et al.  Metal Nanostructures with Hollow Interiors , 2003 .

[130]  N. Kotov,et al.  Gold nanoparticles enhance the anti-leukemia action of a 6-mercaptopurine chemotherapeutic agent. , 2008, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[131]  Audrey Player,et al.  Nanotechnology, nanomedicine, and the development of new, effective therapies for cancer. , 2005, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[132]  Ralph Weissleder,et al.  Near-infrared optical imaging of proteases in cancer. , 2003, Molecular cancer therapeutics.

[133]  C. Murphy,et al.  Room temperature, high-yield synthesis of multiple shapes of gold nanoparticles in aqueous solution. , 2004, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[134]  Naomi J. Halas,et al.  GENERAL VECTOR BASIS FUNCTION SOLUTION OF MAXWELL'S EQUATIONS , 1997 .

[135]  Philip S Low,et al.  Folate receptor-targeted immunotherapy of cancer: mechanism and therapeutic potential. , 2004, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[136]  A. J. Nijdam,et al.  Nanotechnologies for biomolecular detection and medical diagnostics. , 2006, Current opinion in chemical biology.

[137]  C. Shaw,et al.  Gold-Based Therapeutic Agents , 1999 .

[138]  J. West,et al.  Immunotargeted nanoshells for integrated cancer imaging and therapy. , 2005, Nano letters.

[139]  Jörg Maser,et al.  Nanoparticles for Applications in Cellular Imaging , 2007, Nanoscale research letters.

[140]  Kazunori Kataoka,et al.  Quantitative and Reversible Lectin-Induced Association of Gold Nanoparticles Modified with α-Lactosyl-ω-mercapto-poly(ethylene glycol) , 2001 .

[141]  Vincent M Rotello,et al.  Toxicity of gold nanoparticles functionalized with cationic and anionic side chains. , 2004, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[142]  S. Gabriel,et al.  EGFR Mutations in Lung Cancer: Correlation with Clinical Response to Gefitinib Therapy , 2004, Science.

[143]  Hong Liang,et al.  A new route to obtain high-yield multiple-shaped gold nanoparticles in aqueous solution using microwave irradiation. , 2008, Inorganic chemistry.

[144]  Nathan Kohler,et al.  A bifunctional poly(ethylene glycol) silane immobilized on metallic oxide-based nanoparticles for conjugation with cell targeting agents. , 2004, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[145]  Huixiang Li,et al.  Colorimetric detection of DNA sequences based on electrostatic interactions with unmodified gold nanoparticles. , 2004, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[146]  R. Stafford,et al.  Nanoshell-mediated near-infrared thermal therapy of tumors under magnetic resonance guidance , 2003, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[147]  Mizuo Maeda,et al.  Rapid aggregation of gold nanoparticles induced by non-cross-linking DNA hybridization. , 2003, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[148]  Hui Zhang,et al.  Gold nanocages: bioconjugation and their potential use as optical imaging contrast agents. , 2005, Nano letters.

[149]  Chitta Ranjan Patra,et al.  Attaching folic acid on gold nanoparticles using noncovalent interaction via different polyethylene glycol backbones and targeting of cancer cells , 2007 .

[150]  J. Ying,et al.  Reverse microemulsion-mediated synthesis of silica-coated gold and silver nanoparticles. , 2008, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[151]  M. Prato,et al.  Functionalized carbon nanotubes in drug design and discovery. , 2008, Accounts of chemical research.

[152]  V. D’Agati,et al.  Glycation and diabetes: The RAGE connection , 2002 .

[153]  P. Jain,et al.  Calculated absorption and scattering properties of gold nanoparticles of different size, shape, and composition: applications in biological imaging and biomedicine. , 2006, The journal of physical chemistry. B.

[154]  Younan Xia,et al.  Gold and silver nanoparticles: a class of chromophores with colors tunable in the range from 400 to 750 nm. , 2003, The Analyst.

[155]  Raj Bawa,et al.  Recent advances in basic and clinical nanomedicine. , 2007, The Medical clinics of North America.

[156]  Sheng-Wen Huang,et al.  Targeted gold nanorod contrast agent for prostate cancer detection by photoacoustic imaging , 2007 .

[157]  Huan‐Tsung Chang,et al.  Synthesis of dumbbell-shaped Au-Ag core-shell nanorods by seed-mediated growth under alkaline conditions. , 2004, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[158]  B. Pulliam,et al.  Design of nanoparticle-based dry powder pulmonary vaccines , 2007, Expert opinion on drug delivery.

[159]  Qian Wang,et al.  Adaptations of nanoscale viruses and other protein cages for medical applications. , 2006, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[160]  J. Yguerabide,et al.  Light-scattering submicroscopic particles as highly fluorescent analogs and their use as tracer labels in clinical and biological applications. , 1998, Analytical biochemistry.

[161]  B. Gruvberger,et al.  Lichenoid reactions to gold from dental restorations and exposure to gold through intracoronary implant of a gold-plated stent , 2006, Clinical Research in Cardiology.

[162]  F. Farzaneh,et al.  Protein transduction: an alternative to genetic intervention? , 2001, Gene Therapy.

[163]  Catherine J. Murphy,et al.  Wet Chemical Synthesis of High Aspect Ratio Cylindrical Gold Nanorods , 2001 .

[164]  E. W. Meijer,et al.  Probing the interaction of the biotin-avidin complex with the relaxivity of biotinylated Gd-DTPA. , 2004, Organic & biomolecular chemistry.

[165]  I. Rubinstein,et al.  Role of nanotechnology in targeted drug delivery and imaging: a concise review. , 2005, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[166]  Prashant K. Jain,et al.  Plasmonic photothermal therapy (PPTT) using gold nanoparticles , 2008, Lasers in Medical Science.

[167]  W. Rogers,et al.  Factors regulating macrophage endocytosis of nanoparticles: implications for targeted magnetic resonance plaque imaging. , 2005, Atherosclerosis.

[168]  J F Hainfeld,et al.  Gold nanoparticles: a new X-ray contrast agent. , 2006, The British journal of radiology.

[169]  Philip S Low,et al.  Folate-mediated delivery of macromolecular anticancer therapeutic agents. , 2002, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[170]  Sabine Neuss,et al.  Size-dependent cytotoxicity of gold nanoparticles. , 2007, Small.

[171]  S. Franzen,et al.  Multifunctional gold nanoparticle-peptide complexes for nuclear targeting. , 2003, Journal of the American Chemical Society.

[172]  R. Lauffer,et al.  Gadolinium(III) Chelates as MRI Contrast Agents: Structure, Dynamics, and Applications. , 1999, Chemical reviews.

[173]  D. Mukhopadhyay,et al.  Gold Nanoparticles Bearing Functional Anti-Cancer Drug and Anti-Angiogenic Agent: A "2 in 1" System with Potential Application in Cancer Therapeutics , 2005 .

[174]  Huaizhi Zhao,et al.  China’s ancient gold drugs , 2001 .

[175]  A. Gabizon,et al.  Sterically stabilized liposomes: improvements in pharmacokinetics and antitumor therapeutic efficacy. , 1991, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[176]  Takuro Niidome,et al.  PEG-modified gold nanorods with a stealth character for in vivo applications. , 2006, Journal of controlled release : official journal of the Controlled Release Society.

[177]  N. Boukos,et al.  Synthesis and self-organization of Au nanoparticles , 2007 .

[178]  Swarnlata Saraf,et al.  Nanocarriers: promising vehicle for bioactive drugs. , 2006, Biological & pharmaceutical bulletin.

[179]  Chao-Tsen Chen,et al.  Gold nanoparticle-based competitive colorimetric assay for detection of protein-protein interactions. , 2005, Chemical communications.

[180]  S. Nie,et al.  In vivo cancer targeting and imaging with semiconductor quantum dots , 2004, Nature Biotechnology.

[181]  Peter Caravan,et al.  Gadolinium-binding helix-turn-helix peptides: DNA-dependent MRI contrast agents. , 2003, Chemical communications.

[182]  R. Shukla,et al.  Biocompatibility of gold nanoparticles and their endocytotic fate inside the cellular compartment: a microscopic overview. , 2005, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[183]  J. Panda,et al.  The present and future of nanotechnology in human health care. , 2007, Nanomedicine : nanotechnology, biology, and medicine.

[184]  Catherine J. Murphy,et al.  Seed‐Mediated Growth Approach for Shape‐Controlled Synthesis of Spheroidal and Rod‐like Gold Nanoparticles Using a Surfactant Template , 2001 .

[185]  Giulio F. Paciotti,et al.  Colloidal gold nanoparticles: a novel nanoparticle platform for developing multifunctional tumor‐targeted drug delivery vectors , 2006 .

[186]  E. Wagner,et al.  Tumor-targeted gene delivery of tumor necrosis factor-α induces tumor necrosis and tumor regression without systemic toxicity , 2002, Cancer Gene Therapy.

[187]  B. Jena,et al.  Electrochemical biosensor based on integrated assembly of dehydrogenase enzymes and gold nanoparticles. , 2006, Analytical chemistry.

[188]  Yu Zhang,et al.  Starch-Coated Superparamagnetic Nanoparticles as MR Contrast Agents , 2003 .

[189]  Jesus M de la Fuente,et al.  Tat peptide as an efficient molecule to translocate gold nanoparticles into the cell nucleus. , 2005, Bioconjugate chemistry.

[190]  J. Hillier,et al.  A study of the nucleation and growth processes in the synthesis of colloidal gold , 1951 .

[191]  T. Mihaljevic,et al.  Near-infrared fluorescent type II quantum dots for sentinel lymph node mapping , 2004, Nature Biotechnology.

[192]  John C. Bischof,et al.  Enhancement of tumor thermal therapy using gold nanoparticle–assisted tumor necrosis factor-α delivery , 2006, Molecular Cancer Therapeutics.

[193]  Naomi J Halas,et al.  Immunonanoshells for targeted photothermal ablation of tumor cells , 2006, International journal of nanomedicine.

[194]  A. Ragusa,et al.  Nanoparticles as Nonviral Gene Delivery Vectors , 2007, IEEE Transactions on NanoBioscience.

[195]  C. Murphy,et al.  Gold nanoparticles are taken up by human cells but do not cause acute cytotoxicity. , 2005, Small.

[196]  C. Mirkin,et al.  Nanoparticles with Raman spectroscopic fingerprints for DNA and RNA detection. , 2002, Science.

[197]  Dik-Lung Ma,et al.  Some uses of transition metal complexes as anti-cancer and anti-HIV agents. , 2007, Dalton transactions.

[198]  Bansi D Malhotra,et al.  Application of thiolated gold nanoparticles for the enhancement of glucose oxidase activity. , 2007, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.