Source apportionment and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the atmospheric environment of Alexandria, Egypt.

In this study, three receptor models [factor analysis/multiple linear regression (FA/MLR), positive matrix factorization (PMF) and UNMIX] were applied seasonally to investigate the source apportionment of PAHs in the atmospheric environment of Alexandria, and a lifetime cancer risk was assessed. ∑44 (gas+particle) PAH concentrations varied from 330 to 1770ngm(-3) and 170-1290ngm(-3) in the summer and winter seasons respectively. PAH concentrations at the industrial sites were significantly higher than at the traffic and residential sites during the winter season (p<0.001). Summer PAH concentrations were significantly higher than the winter season at the traffic sites (p=0.027). Results obtained from the three receptor models were comparable. Vehicle emissions, both diesel and gasoline contributed on average 36.0-49.0% and 19.0-34.0% respectively, natural gas combustion 11.0-27.0% and, during the summer only, also evaporative/uncombusted petroleum sources 8.00-18.0%. Seasonal trends were found for the gasoline emission source. Overall, PMF and UNMIX models afforded better source identification than did FA/MLR. The lifetime cancer risk assessment showed that incremental lifetime cancer risks (ILTCRs) were greater than the acceptable level of 10(-6) through dermal and ingestion routes at all the investigated sites and through the inhalation route at the industrial and traffic sites only. Total ILTCRs (6.64×10(-3)-4.42×10(-2)) indicated high potential risks to the local residents.

[1]  Judith C. Chow,et al.  Emissions of gas- and particle-phase polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the Shing Mun Tunnel, Hong Kong , 2009 .

[2]  Guangxun Liu,et al.  Estimated contributions and uncertainties of PCA/MLR–CMB results: Source apportionment for synthetic and ambient datasets , 2011 .

[3]  Byeong-Kyu Lee,et al.  Characteristics, toxicity, and source apportionment of polycylic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in road dust of Ulsan, Korea. , 2009, Chemosphere.

[4]  G V Alexeeff,et al.  Potency equivalency factors for some polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon derivatives. , 1998, Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology : RTP.

[5]  Y. J. Kim,et al.  Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in Seoul, Korea , 2002 .

[6]  M. Khoder,et al.  Gas–particle concentration, distribution, and health risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at a traffic area of Giza, Egypt , 2012, Environmental Monitoring and Assessment.

[7]  Ranjeet S. Sokhi,et al.  Atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons: Source attribution, emission factors and regulation , 2008 .

[8]  R. Kamens,et al.  The use of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons as source signatures in receptor modeling , 1993 .

[9]  R. Lohmann,et al.  Role of black carbon in the sorption of polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans at the Diamond Alkali superfund site, Newark Bay, New Jersey. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[10]  B. Turpin,et al.  Sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to the Hudson River Airshed , 2004 .

[11]  M. Khoder,et al.  Atmospheric concentrations of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and selected nitrated derivatives in Greater Cairo, Egypt , 2011 .

[12]  Yi-Fan Li,et al.  Application of positive matrix factorization to identify potential sources of PAHs in soil of Dalian, China. , 2009, Environmental pollution.

[13]  R. Lohmann,et al.  Field validation of polyethylene passive air samplers for parent and alkylated PAHs in Alexandria, Egypt. , 2012, Environmental science & technology.

[14]  P. Ballesta,et al.  Seasonal and Daily Source Apportionment of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbon Concentrations in PM10 in a Semirural European Area , 2009 .

[15]  P. Scheff,et al.  Application of EPA CMB8.2 model for source apportionment of sediment PAHs in Lake Calumet, Chicago. , 2003, Environmental science & technology.

[16]  C. Marvin,et al.  Source apportionment of PAH in Hamilton Harbour suspended sediments: comparison of two factor analysis methods. , 2008, Environmental science & technology.

[17]  R. K. Larsen,et al.  Source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in the urban atmosphere: a comparison of three methods. , 2003, Environmental science & technology.

[18]  B. Maliszewska-Kordybach.  Sources, concentrations, fate and effects of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons [PAHs] in the environment. Part A: PAHs in air , 1999 .

[19]  Min Shao,et al.  Source apportionment of ambient volatile organic compounds in Beijing. , 2007, Environmental science & technology.

[20]  B. Simoneit,et al.  Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons in particulate fallout of alexandria, egypt: sources and implications. , 1995, Environmental science & technology.

[21]  S. Tao,et al.  Emission characteristics of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons from combustion of different residential coals in North China. , 2009, The Science of the total environment.

[22]  Yinchang Feng,et al.  Concentrations and sources of PAHs in surface sediments of the Fenhe reservoir and watershed, China. , 2012, Ecotoxicology and environmental safety.

[23]  Yi-Fan Li,et al.  Seasonal variations of sources of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) to a northeastern urban city, China. , 2010, Chemosphere.

[24]  P. Lioy,et al.  Source apportionment and source/sink relationships of PAHs in the coastal atmosphere of Chicago and Lake Michigan , 1999 .

[25]  Y. Tasdemir,et al.  Atmospheric concentrations of PAHs, their possible sources and gas-to-particle partitioning at a residential site of Bursa, Turkey , 2008 .

[26]  Hai Guo,et al.  Source apportionment of ambient non-methane hydrocarbons in Hong Kong: application of a principal component analysis/absolute principal component scores (PCA/APCS) receptor model. , 2004, Environmental pollution.

[27]  Glen R. Cass,et al.  Sources of fine organic aerosol. 2. Noncatalyst and catalyst-equipped automobiles and heavy-duty diesel trucks , 1993 .

[28]  Philip K. Hopke,et al.  Recent developments in receptor modeling , 2003 .

[29]  C. Reddy,et al.  Contribution of biomass burning to atmospheric polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons at three European background sites. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[30]  Jian Xu,et al.  Potential source contributions and risk assessment of PAHs in sediments from Taihu Lake, China: comparison of three receptor models. , 2012, Water research.

[31]  A. O. Barakat,et al.  PAHs and Petroleum Markers in the Atmospheric Environment of Alexandria City, Egypt , 2002 .

[32]  R. Henry.  Multivariate receptor modeling by N-dimensional edge detection , 2003 .

[33]  Arun Srivastava,et al.  Size distribution and source apportionment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in aerosol particle samples from the atmospheric environment of Delhi, India. , 2011, The Science of the total environment.

[34]  C. Liao,et al.  Assessing hazardous risks of human exposure to temple airborne polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. , 2009, Journal of hazardous materials.

[35]  J. Lodge.  Air quality guidelines for Europe: WHO regional publications, European series, No. 23, World Health Organization, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland; WHO publications center USA, 49 Sheridan Avenue, Albany, NY 12210, 1987, xiii + 426 pp. price: Sw. fr. 60 , 1988 .

[36]  Cong-Qiang Liu,et al.  Seasonal variation and source apportionment of PAHs in TSP in the atmosphere of Guiyang, Southwest China , 2012 .

[37]  A. Srivastava,et al.  Size distribution and source identification of total suspended particulate matter and associated heavy metals in the urban atmosphere of Delhi. , 2007, Chemosphere.

[38]  S. Qi,et al.  Source seasonality of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in a subtropical city, Guangzhou, South China. , 2006, The Science of the total environment.

[39]  I. Nisbet,et al.  Toxic equivalency factors (TEFs) for polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs). , 1992, Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology : RTP.

[40]  Hai-Yang Chen,et al.  Source apportionment of sediment PAHs in the Pearl River Delta region (China) using nonnegative matrix factorization analysis with effective weighted variance solution. , 2013, The Science of the total environment.

[41]  K. Ravindra,et al.  Seasonal and site-specific variation in vapour and aerosol phase PAHs over Flanders (Belgium) and their relation with anthropogenic activities , 2006 .

[42]  Gary Stern,et al.  Using passive air samplers to assess urban-rural trends for persistent organic pollutants and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. 2. Seasonal trends for PAHs, PCBs, and organochlorine pesticides. , 2005, Environmental science & technology.

[43]  J. Michopoulos,et al.  Gas-particle concentration and characterization of sources of PAHs in the atmosphere of a suburban area in Athens, Greece. , 2007, Journal of hazardous materials.

[44]  Roy M. Harrison,et al.  Source Apportionment of Atmospheric Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons Collected from an Urban Location in Birmingham, U.K. , 1996 .