Memory as a function of attention, level of processing, and automatization.

The relationships between long-term memory (LTM) modification, attentional allocation, and type of processing are examined. Automatic/controlled processing theory (Schneider & Shiffrin, 1977) predicts that the nature and amount of controlled processing determines LTM storage and that stimuli can be automatically processed with no lasting LTM effect. Subjects performed the following: (a) an intentional learning, (b) a semantic categorization, (c) a graphic categorization, (d) a distracting digit-search while intentionally learning words, and (e) a distracting digit-search while ignoring words. Frequency judgments were more accurate in the semantic and intentional conditions than the graphic condition. Frequency judgments in the digit-search conditions were near chance. Experiment 2 extensively trained subjects to develop automatic categorization. Automatic categorization produced no frequency learning and little recognition. These results also disconfirm the Hasher and Zacks (1979) "automatic encoding" proposal regarding the nature of processing.

[1]  Gary Cantor,et al.  On the Relationship Between Implicit and Explicit Modes in the Learning of a Complex Rule Structure , 1980 .

[2]  Geoffrey M. Underwood,et al.  Attention and Memory , 1976 .

[3]  E. J. Rowe,et al.  Effects of Orienting Task and Spacing of Repetitions on Frequency Judgments. , 1976 .

[4]  Walter Schneider,et al.  Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending and a general theory. , 1977 .

[5]  I. Gordon.  Interactions between items in visual search. , 1968, Journal of experimental psychology.

[6]  A. D. Fisk,et al.  Category and word search: generalizing search principles to complex processing. , 1983, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[7]  L. Hasher,et al.  Automatic and effortful processes in memory. , 1979 .

[8]  Gordon H. Bower,et al.  Further evidence regarding instructional effects on frequency judgments , 1975 .

[9]  Christopher D. Wickens,et al.  The Structure of Attentional Resources , 1980 .

[10]  Lynn Hasher,et al.  Automatic encoding of event frequency: Further findings. , 1982 .

[11]  G. Logan,et al.  On the Use of a Concurrent Memory Load to Measure Attention and Automaticity , 1979 .

[12]  Daniel Gopher,et al.  On the Economy of the Human Processing System: A Model of Multiple Capacity. , 1977 .

[13]  E. J. Rowe,et al.  Depth of processing in a frequency judgment task , 1974 .

[14]  W. Schneider,et al.  Automatic category search and its transfer. , 1984, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[15]  Daniel L. Schacter,et al.  Priming effects in word-fragment completion are independent of recognition memory. , 1982 .

[16]  Don L. Scarborough,et al.  Accessing lexical memory: The transfer of word repetition effects across task and modality , 1979 .

[17]  J. Jonides,et al.  The cost of categorization in visual search: Incomplete processing of targets and field items , 1976 .

[18]  R. T. Kellogg.  Is conscious attention necessary for long-term storage? , 1980 .

[19]  W. Montague,et al.  Category norms of verbal items in 56 categories A replication and extension of the Connecticut category norms , 1969 .

[20]  A. D. Fisk,et al.  Control and Automatic Processing During Tasks Requiring Sustained Attention: A New Approach to Vigilance , 1981 .

[21]  N. Moray.  Attention in Dichotic Listening: Affective Cues and the Influence of Instructions , 1959 .

[22]  M. Potter.  Short-term conceptual memory for pictures. , 1976, Journal of experimental psychology. Human learning and memory.

[23]  M. Posner,et al.  Attention and cognitive control. , 1975 .

[24]  E. Saltz,et al.  Awareness and Hypothesis Testing in Concept and Operant Learning. , 1970 .

[25]  William C. Howell,et al.  Storage of events and event frequencies: A comparison of two paradigms in memory. , 1973 .

[26]  Walter Schneider,et al.  Controlled and Automatic Human Information Processing: 1. Detection, Search, and Attention. , 1977 .

[27]  D. LaBerge.  Attention and the measurement of perceptual learning , 1973, Memory & cognition.

[28]  Roger Ratcliff,et al.  A revised table of d’ for M-alternative forced choice , 1979 .

[29]  G. Logan.  Attention in character-classification tasks: Evidence for the automaticity of component stages. , 1978 .

[30]  Delos D. Wickens,et al.  The Interrelationship of Taxonomic Categories. , 1975 .

[31]  G Wolford,et al.  Processing of unattended visual information , 1980, Memory & cognition.

[32]  A. D. Fisk,et al.  Concurrent Automatic and Controlled Visual Search: Can Processing Occur Without Resource Cost? , 1982 .