The intersection of gender and race/ethnicity in smoking behaviors among menthol and non-menthol smokers in the United States.

AIMS To determine whether menthol is related to initiation, quantity or quitting, we examined differences in smoking behaviors among menthol and non-menthol smokers, stratified by gender and race/ethnicity, and adjusting for age, income and educational attainment. DESIGN Cross-sectional, using data from the 2005 National Health Interview Survey and Cancer Control Supplement. SETTING United States. PARTICIPANTS Black, Hispanic and white women and men aged 25-64 years. MEASUREMENTS For each group, we examined (i) proportion of menthol smokers (comparing current and former smokers); (ii) age of initiation, cigarettes smoked per day and quit attempt in the past year (comparing menthol and non-menthol current smokers); and (iii) time since quitting (comparing menthol and non-menthol former smokers). We calculated predicted values for each demographic group, adjusting for age, income and educational attainment. FINDINGS After adjusting for age, income and education, black (compared with Hispanic and white) and female (compared with male) smokers were more likely to choose menthol cigarettes. There was only one statistically significant difference in age of initiation, cigarettes smoked per day, quit attempts or time since quitting between menthol and non-menthol smokers: white women who smoked menthol cigarettes reported longer cessation compared with those who smoked non-menthol cigarettes. CONCLUSIONS The results do not support the hypothesis that menthol smokers initiate earlier, smoke more or have a harder time quitting compared with non-menthol smokers. A menthol additive and the marketing of it, given the clear demographic preferences demonstrated here, however, may be responsible for enticing the groups least likely to smoke into this addictive behavior.

[1]  S. Glantz,et al.  Health Effects of Light and Intermittent Smoking: A Review , 2010, Circulation.

[2]  S. Glantz,et al.  Nondaily and social smoking: an increasingly prevalent pattern. , 2009, Archives of internal medicine.

[3]  Thomas R Kirchner,et al.  Patterns of intermittent smoking: An analysis using Ecological Momentary Assessment. , 2009, Addictive behaviors.

[4]  E. Perez-stable,et al.  Intermittent and light daily smoking across racial/ethnic groups in the United States. , 2009, Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

[5]  N. Rigotti,et al.  The natural history of light smokers: a population-based cohort study. , 2009, Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

[6]  A. Jemal,et al.  Recent Trends in Black-White Disparities in Cancer Mortality , 2008, Cancer Epidemiology Biomarkers & Prevention.

[7]  G. Connolly,et al.  The menthol smoker: tobacco industry research on consumer sensory perception of menthol cigarettes and its role in smoking behavior. , 2008, Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

[8]  Ruth E Malone,et al.  Racialized Geography, Corporate Activity, and Health Disparities: Tobacco Industry Targeting of Inner Cities , 2007, Journal of health care for the poor and underserved.

[9]  M. Pletcher,et al.  Menthol cigarettes, smoking cessation, atherosclerosis, and pulmonary function: the Coronary Artery Risk Development in Young Adults (CARDIA) Study. , 2006, Archives of internal medicine.

[10]  M. Metzler,et al.  Socioeconomic status in health research: one size does not fit all. , 2005, JAMA.

[11]  J. Ahluwalia,et al.  African-American menthol and nonmenthol smokers: differences in smoking and cessation experiences. , 2004, Journal of the National Medical Association.

[12]  N. Benowitz,et al.  Mentholated Cigarette Smoking Inhibits Nicotine Metabolism , 2004, Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics.

[13]  S. Garten,et al.  Role of mentholated cigarettes in increased nicotine dependence and greater risk of tobacco-attributable disease. , 2004, Preventive medicine.

[14]  K. Cummings,et al.  Epidemiology of menthol cigarette use. , 2004, Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

[15]  K. Ahijevych,et al.  Menthol pharmacology and its potential impact on cigarette smoking behavior. , 2004, Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

[16]  F. Castro Physiological, psychological, social, and cultural influences on the use of menthol cigarettes among Blacks and Hispanics. , 2004, Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

[17]  P. Gardiner The African Americanization of menthol cigarette use in the United States. , 2004, Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

[18]  R. Robinson,et al.  The marketing of menthol cigarettes in the United States: populations, messages, and channels. , 2004, Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

[19]  N. Benowitz,et al.  Does menthol enhance the addictiveness of cigarettes? An agenda for research. , 2003, Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

[20]  J. Muscat,et al.  Mentholated cigarettes and smoking habits in whites and blacks , 2002, Tobacco control.

[21]  K. Cummings,et al.  Mentholated cigarettes and smoking cessation: findings from COMMIT , 2002, Tobacco control.

[22]  P. Braveman,et al.  Measuring Socioeconomic Status/Position in Studies of Racial/Ethnic Disparities: Maternal and Infant Health , 2001, Public health reports.

[23]  H. Morgenstern,et al.  Mentholated cigarette smoking and lung-cancer risk. , 1999, Annals of epidemiology.

[24]  E. Perez-stable,et al.  Nicotine metabolism and intake in black and white smokers. , 1998, JAMA.

[25]  G. Friedman,et al.  Mentholated cigarette use and lung cancer. , 1995, Archives of internal medicine.

[26]  J. Hébert,et al.  Use of Mentholated Cigarettes and Oropharyngeal Cancer , 1994, Epidemiology.

[27]  P. Remington,et al.  Sociodemographic characteristics of cigarette smoking initiation in the United States. Implications for smoking prevention policy. , 1990, JAMA.

[28]  J. Connett,et al.  Menthol cigarettes and health risks in Lung Health Study data. , 2007, Nicotine & tobacco research : official journal of the Society for Research on Nicotine and Tobacco.

[29]  D. Levy,et al.  Nondaily smokers: who are they? , 2003, American journal of public health.