The evolving epidemiology of acute coronary syndromes

The clinical entities that comprise acute coronary syndromes (ACS)—ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction (STEMI), non-STEMI, and unstable angina—have been recognized as widespread causes of death and disability for more than a century. Seminal research in the past 50 years has led to important scientific and medical advances in our understanding of ACS. Rapid modernization of the developing world has led to a pandemic of coronary artery disease and its manifestation as ACS, with profound implications for personal, societal, and global health. Epidemiological studies have provided insight into the changing demographics of ACS, and highlighted the importance of modifiable risk factors and adherence to guideline-recommended therapy.

[1]  R. Mattu,et al.  Impact of the recommendations for the redefinition of myocardial infarction on diagnosis and prognosis in an unselected United Kingdom cohort with suspected cardiac chest pain. , 2004, The American journal of cardiology.

[2]  W. Rogers,et al.  Trends in quality of care for patients with acute myocardial infarction in the National Registry of Myocardial Infarction from 1990 to 2006. , 2008, American heart journal.

[3]  Philippe Amouyel,et al.  A European Society of Cardiology survey of secondary prevention of coronary heart disease: Principal results. , 1997 .

[4]  D. Levy,et al.  Temporal Trends in Coronary Heart Disease Mortality and Sudden Cardiac Death From 1950 to 1999: The Framingham Heart Study , 2004, Circulation.

[5]  D. Mozaffarian,et al.  Heart disease and stroke statistics--2010 update: a report from the American Heart Association. , 2010, Circulation.

[6]  B. Yawn,et al.  Trends in Incidence, Severity, and Outcome of Hospitalized Myocardial Infarction , 2010, Circulation.

[7]  A. Mattioli,et al.  Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients , 2002, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[8]  T. Gaziano,et al.  Cardiovascular Disease in the Developing World and Its Cost-Effective Management , 2005, Circulation.

[9]  N Freemantle,et al.  beta Blockade after myocardial infarction: systematic review and meta regression analysis. , 1999, BMJ.

[10]  W. Markiewicz,et al.  Appropriateness of diagnosis of unstable angina pectoris in patients referred for coronary arteriography. , 2008, Experimental and clinical cardiology.

[11]  Sonia S. Anand,et al.  Risk factors for myocardial infarction in women and men: insights from the INTERHEART study. , 2008, European heart journal.

[12]  E. Antman,et al.  Adherence to national guidelines for drug treatment of suspected acute myocardial infarction: evidence for undertreatment in women and the elderly. , 1996, Archives of internal medicine.

[13]  C. Cannon,et al.  The potential relevance of the multiple lipid-independent (pleiotropic) effects of statins in the management of acute coronary syndromes. , 2005, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[14]  W. Gibler,et al.  Racial Variations in Treatment and Outcomes of Black and White Patients With High-Risk Non–ST-Elevation Acute Coronary Syndromes: Insights From CRUSADE (Can Rapid Risk Stratification of Unstable Angina Patients Suppress Adverse Outcomes With Early Implementation of the ACC/AHA Guidelines?) , 2005, Circulation.

[15]  T. Thom,et al.  Acute coronary syndrome national statistics: challenges in definitions. , 2005, American heart journal.

[16]  J. Alpert,et al.  A 25-year perspective into the changing landscape of patients hospitalized with acute myocardial infarction (the Worcester Heart Attack Study). , 2004, The American journal of cardiology.

[17]  C. Husten,et al.  Cigarette smoking among adults--United States, 2006. , 2007, MMWR. Morbidity and mortality weekly report.

[18]  K. Kotseva,et al.  EUROASPIRE III: a survey on the lifestyle, risk factors and use of cardioprotective drug therapies in coronary patients from 22 European countries , 2009, European journal of cardiovascular prevention and rehabilitation : official journal of the European Society of Cardiology, Working Groups on Epidemiology & Prevention and Cardiac Rehabilitation and Exercise Physiology.

[19]  C. Sempos,et al.  Causes of declining life expectancy in Russia. , 1998, JAMA.

[20]  K. Sliwa,et al.  A time bomb of cardiovascular risk factors in South Africa: results from the Heart of Soweto Study "Heart Awareness Days". , 2009, International journal of cardiology.

[21]  Douglas L. Mann,et al.  Braunwald’s Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine. 8th edition , 2018 .

[22]  K. Thygesen,et al.  Erratum: Myocardial infarction redefined - A consensus document of the Joint European Society of Cardiology/American College of Cardiology Committee for the Redefinition of Myocardial Infarction (Journal of the American College of Cardiology (2000) 36 (959-969)) , 2001 .

[23]  Racial Variations in Treatment and Outcomes of Black and White Patients With High-Risk Non–ST-Elevation Acute Coronary Syndromes: Insights From CRUSADE (Can Rapid Risk Stratification of Unstable Angina Patients Suppress Adverse Outcomes With Early Implementation of the ACC/AHA Guidelines?) , 2005 .

[24]  J. McMurray,et al.  Epidemiology of heart failure and left ventricular systolic dysfunction after acute myocardial infarction: prevalence, clinical characteristics, and prognostic importance. , 2006, The American journal of cardiology.

[25]  A. Folsom,et al.  Coronary heart disease trends in four United States communities. The Atherosclerosis Risk in Communities (ARIC) study 1987-1996. , 2001, International journal of epidemiology.

[26]  Yun Wang,et al.  National impact of the troponin diagnostic standard on the prevalence and prognosis of acute myocardial infarction in older persons. , 2006, Critical pathways in cardiology.

[27]  Elizabeth R DeLong,et al.  Association between hospital process performance and outcomes among patients with acute coronary syndromes. , 2006, JAMA.

[28]  D. Mozaffarian,et al.  Executive summary: heart disease and stroke statistics--2010 update: a report from the American Heart Association. , 2010, Circulation.

[29]  B. Gersh,et al.  Population Trends in the Incidence and Outcomes of Acute Myocardial Infarction , 2011 .

[30]  Deepak L. Bhatt,et al.  International prevalence, recognition, and treatment of cardiovascular risk factors in outpatients with atherothrombosis. , 2006, JAMA.

[31]  N. Powe,et al.  Fourteen-year (1987 to 2000) trends in the attack rates of, therapy for, and mortality from non-ST-elevation acute coronary syndromes in four United States communities. , 2005, American Journal of Cardiology.

[32]  Á. Avezum,et al.  Impact of age on management and outcome of acute coronary syndrome: observations from the Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events (GRACE). , 2005, American heart journal.

[33]  Daniel W. Jones,et al.  The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: the JNC 7 report. , 2003, JAMA.

[34]  Goutham Rao,et al.  Childhood Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus , 2005, Pediatrics.

[35]  Ellen Meara,et al.  Differences in Control of Cardiovascular Disease and Diabetes by Race, Ethnicity, and Education: U.S. Trends From 1999 to 2006 and Effects of Medicare Coverage , 2009, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[36]  J. Gore,et al.  Twenty year trends (1975-1995) in the incidence, in-hospital and long-term death rates associated with heart failure complicating acute myocardial infarction: a community-wide perspective. , 1999, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[37]  K. Kotseva,et al.  Cardiovascular prevention guidelines in daily practice: a comparison of EUROASPIRE I, II, and III surveys in eight European countries , 2009, The Lancet.

[38]  D R Jacobs,et al.  Trends in Acute Coronary Heart Disease Mortality, Morbidity, and Medical Care From 1985 Through 1997: The Minnesota Heart Survey , 2001, Circulation.

[39]  A. Klimov,et al.  Social factors and increase in mortality in Russia in the 1990s: prospective cohort study , 2003, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[40]  L. Wallentin,et al.  Medication in relation to ST-segment elevation myocardial infarction in patients with a first myocardial infarction: Swedish Register of Information and Knowledge About Swedish Heart Intensive Care Admissions (RIKS-HIA). , 2010, Archives of internal medicine.

[41]  R. Pinner,et al.  Trends in infectious disease mortality in the United States during the 20th century. , 1999, JAMA.

[42]  Michael J Pencina,et al.  Long-Term Trends in the Incidence of Heart Failure After Myocardial Infarction , 2008, Circulation.

[43]  S. Yusuf,et al.  Risk Factors Associated With Myocardial Infarction in Africa: The INTERHEART Africa Study , 2005, Circulation.

[44]  S. Yusuf,et al.  Emerging role of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors in cardiac and vascular protection. , 1994, Circulation.

[45]  J. Alpert,et al.  Universal definition of myocardial infarction. , 2007, European heart journal.

[46]  R. Goldberg,et al.  Recent aspirin use is associated with smaller myocardial infarct size and lower likelihood of Q-wave infarction. , 1999, American heart journal.

[47]  J. Cutler,et al.  Trends and disparities in coronary heart disease, stroke, and other cardiovascular diseases in the United States: findings of the national conference on cardiovascular disease prevention. , 2000, Circulation.

[48]  Simon Capewell,et al.  Explaining the decrease in U.S. deaths from coronary disease, 1980-2000. , 2007, The New England journal of medicine.

[49]  Shiva Gautam,et al.  Daylight saving time shifts and incidence of acute myocardial infarction--Swedish Register of Information and Knowledge About Swedish Heart Intensive Care Admissions (RIKS-HIA). , 2012, Sleep medicine.

[50]  D. Wood,et al.  Clinical reality of coronary prevention guidelines: a comparison of EUROASPIRE I and II in nine countries , 2001, The Lancet.

[51]  S. Olshansky,et al.  The fourth stage of the epidemiologic transition: the age of delayed degenerative diseases. , 1986, The Milbank quarterly.

[52]  J. Gore,et al.  Impact of aspirin on presentation and hospital outcomes in patients with acute coronary syndromes (The Global Registry of Acute Coronary Events [GRACE]). , 2002, The American journal of cardiology.

[53]  V. Preedy,et al.  Prospective Cohort Study , 2010 .

[54]  P. Whincup,et al.  How Much of the Recent Decline in the Incidence of Myocardial Infarction in British Men Can Be Explained by Changes in Cardiovascular Risk Factors?: Evidence From a Prospective Population-Based Study , 2008, Circulation.

[55]  S. Normand,et al.  Reduction in acute myocardial infarction mortality in the United States: risk-standardized mortality rates from 1995-2006. , 2009, JAMA.

[56]  L. Newby,et al.  Gender disparities in the diagnosis and treatment of non-ST-segment elevation acute coronary syndromes: large-scale observations from the CRUSADE (Can Rapid Risk Stratification of Unstable Angina Patients Suppress Adverse Outcomes With Early Implementation of the American College of Cardiology/Ameri , 2005, Journal of the American College of Cardiology.

[57]  S. Yusuf,et al.  Effect of potentially modifiable risk factors associated with myocardial infarction in 52 countries (the INTERHEART study): case-control study , 2004, The Lancet.

[58]  Catherine Sudlow,et al.  Collaborative meta-analysis of randomised trials of antiplatelet therapy for prevention of death, myocardial infarction, and stroke in high risk patients , 2002, BMJ : British Medical Journal.

[59]  A. Sabin.  Control of Infectious Diseases , 1943, Nature.

[60]  G. Filippatos,et al.  The second Euro Heart Survey on acute coronary syndromes: Characteristics, treatment, and outcome of patients with ACS in Europe and the Mediterranean Basin in 2004. , 2006, European heart journal.

[61]  Deepak L. Bhatt,et al.  Nine-year trends in achievement of risk factor goals in the US and European outpatients with cardiovascular disease. , 2008, American heart journal.

[62]  K. Flegal,et al.  Prevalence and trends in obesity among US adults, 1999-2008. , 2010, JAMA.

[63]  Gruppo Italiano per lo Studio della Soprawivenza nell'Inf Miocardico.,et al.  EFFECTIVENESS OF INTRAVENOUS THROMBOLYTIC TREATMENT IN ACUTE MYOCARDIAL INFARCTION , 1986, The Lancet.

[64]  P. Basch.  Quality of health care delivered to adults in the United States. , 2003, New England Journal of Medicine.

[65]  H. Tunstall-Pedoe,et al.  Myocardial Infarction and Coronary Deaths in the World Health Organization MONICA Project: Registration Procedures, Event Rates, and Case‐Fatality Rates in 38 Populations From 21 Countries in Four Continents , 1994, Circulation.

[66]  J. Larosa,et al.  Pleiotropic effects of statins and their clinical significance. , 2001, The American journal of cardiology.

[67]  Douglas P. Zipes,et al.  Braunwald's Heart Disease: A Textbook of Cardiovascular Medicine, 2-Volume Set, 10th Edition , 2011 .

[68]  R. D'Agostino,et al.  Sex and time trends in cardiovascular disease incidence and mortality: the Framingham Heart Study, 1950-1989. , 1996, American journal of epidemiology.

[69]  Hugo A. Katus,et al.  Myocardial infarction redefined--a consensus document of The Joint European Society of Cardiology/American College of Cardiology Committee for the redefinition of myocardial infarction. , 2000, European heart journal.

[70]  Raymond C. Schneider,et al.  ISIS-4: A randomised factorial trial assessing early oral captopril, oral mononitrate, and intravenous magnesium sulphate in 58 050 patients with suspected acute myocardial infarction , 1995, The Lancet.

[71]  J. Alpert,et al.  Joint ESC/ACCF/AHA/WHF Task Force for the Redefinition of Myocardial Infarction , 2008 .

[72]  M. Richmond,et al.  Distribution of R Plasmids Among the O-Antigen Types of Escherichia coli Isolated from Various Clinical Sources , 1976, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[73]  H. Tunstall-Pedoe,et al.  Changes in estimated coronary risk in the 1980s: data from 38 populations in the WHO MONICA Project. World Health Organization. Monitoring trends and determinants in cardiovascular diseases. , 1998, Annals of medicine.

[74]  A. Omran.  The epidemiologic transition. A theory of the epidemiology of population change. , 1971, The Milbank Memorial Fund quarterly.

[75]  J. Tait,et al.  Challenges and opportunities. , 1996, Journal of psychiatric and mental health nursing.

[76]  Andy Wielgosz,et al.  Socioeconomic status and cardiovascular disease: risks and implications for care , 2009, Nature Reviews Cardiology.

[77]  J. Murabito,et al.  Long-Term Trends in Myocardial Infarction Incidence and Case Fatality in the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute's Framingham Heart Study , 2009, Circulation.

[78]  A. Go,et al.  Rethinking the epidemiology of acute myocardial infarction: challenges and opportunities. , 2010, Archives of internal medicine.

[79]  Alan D. Lopez,et al.  Global burden of disease and risk factors , 2006 .

[80]  D. Wood.  European Action on Secondary Prevention by Intervention to Reduce Events , 1998 .

[81]  A. Folsom,et al.  Trends in the incidence of myocardial infarction and in mortality due to coronary heart disease, 1987 to 1994. , 1998, The New England journal of medicine.

[82]  Salim Yusuf,et al.  Novel therapeutic concepts: the epidemic of cardiovascular disease in the developing world: global implications. , 2010, European heart journal.

[83]  S. Yusuf,et al.  Global burden of cardiovascular diseases: part I: general considerations, the epidemiologic transition, risk factors, and impact of urbanization. , 2001, Circulation.

[84]  P. Whelton,et al.  Trends in blood pressure among children and adolescents. , 2004, JAMA.

[85]  J. Ornato,et al.  Trends in presenting characteristics and hospital mortality among patients with ST elevation and non-ST elevation myocardial infarction in the National Registry of Myocardial Infarction from 1990 to 2006. , 2008, American heart journal.

[86]  W. Osler.  The Lumleian Lectures ON ANGINA PECTORIS. , 1910 .

[87]  J. Gore,et al.  Association of Statin Therapy with Outcomes of Acute Coronary Syndromes: The GRACE Study , 2004, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[88]  M. Silverman.  William heberden and some account of a disorder of the breast , 1987, Clinical cardiology.

[89]  N. Sharpe,et al.  Left ventricular remodeling after myocardial infarction: pathophysiology and therapy. , 2000, Circulation.

[90]  B. Yawn,et al.  Incidence of heart failure after myocardial infarction: is it changing over time? , 2003, American journal of epidemiology.

[91]  S. L. Murphy,et al.  Deaths: final data for 2003. , 2006, National vital statistics reports : from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, National Vital Statistics System.