GECO: Galaxy Evolution COde - A new semi-analytical model of galaxy formation

Aims. We present a new semi-analytical model of galaxy formation, GECO (Galaxy Evolution COde), aimed at a better understanding of when and how the two processes of star formation and galaxy assembly have taken place, by comparison with a wide variety of recent data on the evolutionary galaxy mass functions and star-formation histories. Methods. Our model is structured into a Monte Carlo algorithm based on the Extended Press-Schechter theory, for the representati on of the merging hierarchy of dark matter halos, and a set of ana lytic algorithms for the treatment of the baryonic physics, including classical recipes for the gas cooling, the star formation ti me-scales, galaxy mergers and SN feedback. Together with the galaxies, the parallel growth of BHs is followed in time and their feedback on the hosting galaxies is modelled. We set the model free parameters by matching with data on local stellar mass functions and the BH-bulge relation at z = 0. Results. Based on such local boundary conditions, we investigate how data on the high-redshift universe constrain our understan ding of the physical processes driving the evolution, focusing i n particular on the assembly of stellar mass and on the star fo rmation history. Since both processes are currently strongly constrained by cosmological near- and far-IR surveys with the Spitzer Space Telescope,

[1]  Timothy M. Heckman,et al.  Accepted for publication in the Astronomical Journal Preprint typeset using L ATEX style emulateapj v. 20/04/00 CHANDRA OBSERVATIONS OF NGC 253: NEW INSIGHTS INTO THE NATURE OF , 2000 .

[2]  Properties of Galactic Outflows: Measurements of the Feedback from Star Formation , 1998, astro-ph/9810233.

[3]  A. Fontana,et al.  Early Hierarchical Formation of Massive Galaxies Triggered by Interactions , 2003, astro-ph/0311496.

[4]  S. Cole,et al.  The structure of dark matter haloes in hierarchical clustering models , 1995, astro-ph/9510147.

[5]  C. Baugh,et al.  Evolution of the Hubble sequence in hierarchical models for galaxy formation , 1996, astro-ph/9602085.

[6]  The effects of photoionization on galaxy formation — III. Environmental dependence in the luminosity function , 2002, astro-ph/0210354.

[7]  The rise and fall of satellites in galaxy clusters , 1996, astro-ph/9611078.

[8]  Volker Springel,et al.  The Many lives of AGN: Cooling flows, black holes and the luminosities and colours of galaxies , 2006, astro-ph/0602065.

[9]  A. M. Hopkins,et al.  On the Evolution of Star-forming Galaxies , 2004, astro-ph/0407170.

[10]  S. D. M. White,et al.  The merging history of dark matter haloes in a hierarchical universe , 1993 .

[11]  A long-wavelength view on galaxy evolution from deep surveys by the Infrared Space Observatory , 2001, astro-ph/0108292.

[12]  Shude Mao,et al.  The formation of galactic discs , 1997 .

[13]  The forest of merger history trees associated with the formation of dark matter haloes , 1998, astro-ph/9805322.

[14]  L. Hernquist,et al.  Gasdynamics and starbursts in major mergers , 1995, astro-ph/9512099.

[15]  M. Dopita,et al.  Cooling functions for low-density astrophysical plasmas , 1993 .

[16]  R. Nichol,et al.  The 3D power spectrum of galaxies from the SDSS , 2003, astro-ph/0310725.

[17]  STScI,et al.  The Tumultuous Lives of Galactic Dwarfs and the Missing Satellites Problem , 2004 .

[18]  Jr.,et al.  The Global Schmidt law in star forming galaxies , 1997, astro-ph/9712213.

[19]  L. Cowie,et al.  New Insight on Galaxy Formation and Evolution from Keck Spectroscopy of the Hawaii Deep Fields , 1996, astro-ph/9606079.

[20]  R. Nichol,et al.  Quantifying the Bimodal Color-Magnitude Distribution of Galaxies , 2003, astro-ph/0309710.

[21]  J. Silk,et al.  Dwarf galaxies, cold dark matter, and biased galaxy formation , 1986 .

[22]  R. Davé,et al.  How do galaxies get their gas , 2002, astro-ph/0407095.

[23]  A. Evrard,et al.  The baryon content of galaxy clusters: a challenge to cosmological orthodoxy , 1993, Nature.

[24]  N. Gnedin.  Effect of Reionization on Structure Formation in the Universe , 2000, astro-ph/0002151.

[25]  S. White,et al.  A Universal Density Profile from Hierarchical Clustering , 1996, astro-ph/9611107.

[26]  Oxford,et al.  Breaking the hierarchy of galaxy formation , 2005, astro-ph/0511338.

[27]  U. California,et al.  How to plant a merger tree , 1997, astro-ph/9711080.

[28]  J. Bond,et al.  The Peak-Patch Picture of Cosmic Catalogs. I. Algorithms , 1996 .

[29]  Liang Gao,et al.  Mass loss of galaxies due to an ultraviolet background , 2008, 0806.0378.

[30]  On the life and death of satellite haloes , 2003, astro-ph/0301271.

[31]  The Galaxy Mass Function up to z=4 in the GOODS-MUSIC sample: into the epoch of formation of massive galaxies ⋆ , 2006, astro-ph/0609068.

[32]  U. California,et al.  Semi-analytic modelling of galaxy formation: The local Universe , 1998, astro-ph/9802268.

[33]  S. White,et al.  Simulations of X-ray clusters , 1994, astro-ph/9408069.

[34]  P. Dokkum,et al.  The Recent and Continuing Assembly of Field Elliptical Galaxies by Red Mergers , 2005, astro-ph/0506661.

[35]  Cambridge,et al.  Luminosity function and radial distribution of Milky Way satellites in a ΛCDM Universe , 2009, 0903.4681.

[36]  S. Borgani,et al.  How does gas cool in DM halos , 2007, 0710.2473.

[37]  G. Kauffmann,et al.  The many lives of active galactic nuclei: cooling flows, black holes and the luminosities and colour , 2005, astro-ph/0508046.

[38]  The nature of high-redshift galaxies , 1998, astro-ph/9806228.

[39]  A. Dekel,et al.  Galaxy bimodality due to cold flows and shock heating , 2004, astro-ph/0412300.

[40]  Laura Ferrarese David Merritt.  A Fundamental Relation Between Supermassive Black Holes and Their Host Galaxies , 2000, astro-ph/0006053.

[41]  Carlos S. Frenk,et al.  Galaxy formation through hierarchical clustering , 1991 .

[42]  Durham,et al.  Ram pressure stripping the hot gaseous haloes of galaxies in groups and clusters , 2007, 0710.0964.

[43]  Conditional mass functions and merger rates of dark matter haloes in the ellipsoidal collapse model , 2008, 0801.3459.

[44]  F. Fontanot,et al.  The morgana model for the rise of galaxies and active nuclei , 2006, astro-ph/0610805.

[45]  Natural downsizing in hierarchical galaxy formation , 2006, astro-ph/0605045.

[46]  UCOLick,et al.  Submitted to ApJ Preprint typeset using L ATEX style emulateapj v. 6/22/04 THE MASS ASSEMBLY HISTORY OF FIELD GALAXIES: DETECTION OF AN EVOLVING MASS LIMIT FOR STAR FORMING GALAXIES , 2005 .

[47]  S. White,et al.  Simulations of dissipative galaxy formation in hierarchically clustering universes – II. Dynamics of the baryonic component in galactic haloes , 1994 .

[48]  L. Moscardini,et al.  Modelling the cosmological co-evolution of supermassive black holes and galaxies – I. BH scaling relations and the AGN luminosity function , 2007, 0711.2053.

[49]  Michael S. Warren,et al.  Dark halos formed via dissipationless collapse. I: Shapes and alignment of angular momentum , 1992 .

[50]  X. Kang,et al.  New Constraints on the Efficiencies of Ram Pressure Stripping and the Tidal Disruption of Satellite Galaxies , 2008, 0801.1843.

[51]  Black hole growth in hierarchical galaxy formation , 2006, astro-ph/0607424.

[52]  David Elbaz,et al.  The Bulk of the Cosmic Infrared Background Resolved by ISOCAM , 2002, astro-ph/0201328.

[53]  A. Fontana,et al.  The Abundance of Distant and Extremely Red Galaxies: The Role of AGN Feedback in Hierarchical Models , 2006, astro-ph/0605123.

[54]  J. R. Bond,et al.  Excursion set mass functions for hierarchical Gaussian fluctuations , 1991 .

[55]  M. Halpern,et al.  FIVE-YEAR WILKINSON MICROWAVE ANISOTROPY PROBE OBSERVATIONS: LIKELIHOODS AND PARAMETERS FROM THE WMAP DATA , 2008, 0803.0586.

[56]  The Mass Assembly Histories of Galaxies of Various Morphologies in the GOODS Fields , 2005, astro-ph/0502204.

[57]  Early-Type Galaxies in the Hubble Deep Field: The Star Formation History* , 1998, astro-ph/9806077.

[58]  L. Hernquist,et al.  Triggering of Starbursts in Galaxies by Minor Mergers , 1994 .

[59]  P. Natarajan,et al.  The evolution of massive black hole seeds , 2007, 0709.0529.

[60]  Didier Vibert,et al.  GALICS I: A hybrid N-body semi-analytic model of hierarchical galaxy formation , 2003 .

[61]  Mass downsizing and ``top-down'' assembly of early-type galaxies , 2006, astro-ph/0605353.

[62]  G. Fasano,et al.  SUPERDENSE MASSIVE GALAXIES IN WINGS LOCAL CLUSTERS , 2009, 0907.2392.

[63]  V. Springel,et al.  GADGET: a code for collisionless and gasdynamical cosmological simulations , 2000, astro-ph/0003162.

[64]  I. Trujillo,et al.  SUPERDENSE MASSIVE GALAXIES IN THE NEARBY UNIVERSE , 2009, Proceedings of the International Astronomical Union.

[65]  R. Ellis,et al.  Parameter constraints for flat cosmologies from cosmic microwave background and 2dFGRS power spectra , 2002, astro-ph/0206256.

[66]  Hans-Walter Rix,et al.  On the Black Hole Mass-Bulge Mass Relation , 2004, astro-ph/0402376.

[67]  Ralf Bender,et al.  A Relationship between Nuclear Black Hole Mass and Galaxy Velocity Dispersion , 2000, astro-ph/0006289.

[68]  C. Conselice,et al.  Strong size evolution of the most massive galaxies since z~2 , 2007, 0709.0621.

[69]  Oxford,et al.  How do galaxies acquire their mass , 2010, 1002.3257.

[70]  S. Cole,et al.  Merger rates in hierarchical models of galaxy formation , 1993 .

[71]  D. Croton,et al.  Properties of galaxy groups in the Sloan Digital Sky Survey – II. Active galactic nucleus feedback and star formation truncation , 2006 .

[72]  M. Nonino,et al.  Cosmic evolution of the galaxy's mass and luminosity functions by morphological type from multi-wavelength data in the CDF-South , 2006, astro-ph/0601003.

[73]  V. Springel,et al.  A unified model for AGN feedback in cosmological simulations of structure formation , 2007, 0705.2238.

[74]  D. Sanders,et al.  LUMINOUS INFRARED GALAXIES , 1996 .

[75]  et al,et al.  The Discovery of a Luminous z = 5.80 Quasar from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey , 2000, astro-ph/0005414.

[76]  R. Nichol,et al.  The Three-Dimensional Power Spectrum of Galaxies from the Sloan Digital Sky Survey , 2003, astro-ph/0310725.

[77]  M. Phillips,et al.  Observational Evidence from Supernovae for an Accelerating Universe and a Cosmological Constant , 1998, astro-ph/9805201.

[78]  P. Hopkins,et al.  A semi-analytic model for the co-evolution of galaxies, black holes and active galactic nuclei , 2008, 0808.1227.

[79]  G. Kauffmann,et al.  The formation history of elliptical galaxies , 2005, astro-ph/0509725.

[80]  G. Richards,et al.  An Observational Determination of the Bolometric Quasar Luminosity Function , 2006, astro-ph/0605678.

[81]  R. Nichol,et al.  The dependence of star formation history and internal structure on stellar mass for 105 low‐redshift galaxies , 2002, astro-ph/0205070.

[82]  An improved model for the formation times of dark matter haloes , 2006, astro-ph/0611221.

[83]  S. White,et al.  The Assembly of galaxies in a hierarchically clustering universe , 1994, astro-ph/9408067.

[84]  G. Rieke,et al.  The Stellar Mass Assembly of Galaxies from z = 0 to z = 4: Analysis of a Sample Selected in the Rest-Frame Near-Infrared with Spitzer , 2007, 0709.1354.

[85]  Observational Evidence for the Coevolution of Galaxy Mergers, Quasars, and the Blue/Red Galaxy Transition , 2006, astro-ph/0601621.

[86]  R. Somerville,et al.  The effect of galaxy mass ratio on merger-driven starbursts , 2007, 0709.3511.

[87]  R. Sheth,et al.  An excursion set model of hierarchical clustering: ellipsoidal collapse and the moving barrier , 2001, astro-ph/0105113.

[88]  P. Thomas,et al.  The recycling of gas and metals in galaxy formation: predictions of a dynamical feedback model , 2007, astro-ph/0701407.

[89]  Mark Lacy,et al.  The contribution of high-redshift galaxies to cosmic reionization: New results from deep WFC3 imaging of the Hubble Ultra Deep Field , 2009, 0909.2255.

[90]  William H. Press,et al.  Formation of Galaxies and Clusters of Galaxies by Self-Similar Gravitational Condensation , 1974 .

[91]  S. Wuyts,et al.  THE EVOLUTION OF THE STELLAR MASS FUNCTION OF GALAXIES FROM z = 4.0 AND THE FIRST COMPREHENSIVE ANALYSIS OF ITS UNCERTAINTIES: EVIDENCE FOR MASS-DEPENDENT EVOLUTION , 2008, 0811.1773.

[92]  E. Bell,et al.  The Optical and Near-Infrared Properties of Galaxies. I. Luminosity and Stellar Mass Functions , 2003, astro-ph/0302543.

[93]  France.,et al.  galics- VI. Modelling hierarchical galaxy formation in clusters , 2005, astro-ph/0502490.

[94]  Supermassive black hole demography: the match between the local and accreted mass functions , 2004, astro-ph/0405585.

[95]  F. Fontanot,et al.  The correlation of star formation quenching with internal galaxy properties and environment , 2008, 0810.2794.

[96]  Cheng Li,et al.  A Fitting Formula for the Merger Timescale of Galaxies in Hierarchical Clustering , 2007, 0707.2628.

[97]  E. Quataert,et al.  Dynamical friction and galaxy merging time-scales , 2007, 0707.2960.

[98]  G. Kauffmann,et al.  The formation and evolution of galaxies within merging dark matter haloes , 1993 .

[99]  B. Garilli,et al.  Mid- and far-infrared luminosity functions and galaxy evolution from multiwavelength Spitzer observations up to z ~ 2.5 , 2009, 0910.5649.

[100]  Dwarf galaxies in voids: suppressing star formation with photoheating , 2005, astro-ph/0501304.

[101]  G. Mamon.  Are Cluster Ellipticals the Products of Mergers , 1992 .

[102]  R. Bender,et al.  The Epochs of Early-Type Galaxy Formation as a Function of Environment , 2004, astro-ph/0410209.

[103]  Joel R. Primack,et al.  Formation of galaxies and large-scale structure with cold dark matter , 1984, Nature.

[104]  Rachel S. Somerville,et al.  Can Photoionization Squelching Resolve the Substructure Crisis? , 2001, astro-ph/0107507.

[105]  F. Fontanot,et al.  The many manifestations of downsizing: hierarchical galaxy formation models confront observations , 2009, 0901.1130.

[106]  University of Durham,et al.  The effects of photoionization on galaxy formation – I. Model and results at z=0 , 2002 .

[107]  C. Lagos,et al.  Effects of AGN feedback on ΛCDM galaxies , 2008, 0805.1930.

[108]  M. Rees,et al.  Core condensation in heavy halos: a two-stage theory for galaxy formation and clustering , 1978 .

[109]  Clustering of galaxies in a hierarchical universe — II. Evolution to high redshift , 1998, astro-ph/9809168.

[110]  S. Phleps,et al.  The Merger Rate of Massive Galaxies , 2006, astro-ph/0602038.

[111]  Carlos S. Frenk,et al.  A recipe for galaxy formation , 1994 .

[112]  Quasar Luminosity Functions from Joint Evolution of Black Holes and Host Galaxies , 2006, astro-ph/0603819.

[113]  G. Kauffmann,et al.  A unified model for the evolution of galaxies and quasars , 1999, astro-ph/9906493.

[114]  Edward J. Wollack,et al.  First year Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) observations: Determination of cosmological parameters , 2003, astro-ph/0302209.

[115]  Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar,et al.  Dynamical friction. I. General considerations: the coefficient of dynamical friction , 1943 .

[116]  Garching,et al.  Substructures in cold dark matter haloes , 2003, astro-ph/0306205.

[117]  G. Zamorani,et al.  GMASS ultradeep spectroscopy of galaxies at $z$ ~ 2 - II. Superdense passive galaxies: how did they form and evolve? , 2008, 0801.1184.

[118]  Hydrodynamic Simulations of Galaxy Formation. II. Photoionization and the Formation of Low Mass Galaxies , 1995, astro-ph/9510154.

[119]  R. Ellis,et al.  The 2dF galaxy redshift survey: near-infrared galaxy luminosity functions , 2000, astro-ph/0012429.

[120]  K. Bundy,et al.  Mock observations with the Millennium Simulation: cosmological downsizing and intermediate-redshift observations , 2008, 0806.2232.

[121]  Modelling the galaxy bimodality: shutdown above a critical halo mass , 2006, astro-ph/0601295.

[122]  Pure luminosity evolution models: too few massive galaxies at intermediate and high redshift , 2004, astro-ph/0409682.