Swimming speed estimation of extinct marine reptiles: energetic approach revisited

Abstract Cruising speeds of Mesozoic marine reptiles have been estimated in the past by using a mathematical model of energetic equilibrium during steady swimming. This method suffered from a significant tendency to overestimate speeds of extant cetaceans for no clear reason, which raised questions about the validity of the approach itself. The present study identifies the factors that caused this shortcoming and proposes corrections and some additional modifications. These include the use of more accurate body shape models, updated metabolic rate models, and optimal rather than critical swimming speeds. The amended method successfully approximates published optimal speeds of several extant marine vertebrates, including cetaceans, showing that the basic framework of the energetic approach is valid. With this confirmation, the method was applied to Mesozoic marine reptiles, by assuming three different metabolic rate categories known in extant swimming vertebrates (i.e., average ectothermic, raised ectothermic, and marine endothermic levels). The results support previous inferences about the relative cruising capabilities of Mesozoic marine reptiles (i.e., ichthyosaurs > plesiosaurs > mosasaurs). Stenopterygius, a thunniform ichthyosaur, was probably capable of cruising at a speed at least comparable to those reported for some extant thunniform teleosts with similar diets (∼1 m/second).

[1]  S. Vogel.  Life in Moving Fluids: The Physical Biology of Flow , 1981 .

[2]  D. Henning.  Metabolism , 1972, Introduction to a Phenomenology of Life.

[3]  R. Motani.  Estimating body mass from silhouettes: testing the assumption of elliptical body cross-sections , 2001, Paleobiology.

[4]  I. Johnston,et al.  Scaling Effects on Muscle Function: Power Output of Isolated Fish Muscle Fibres Performing Oscillatory Work , 1990 .

[5]  Paul W. Webb,et al.  SWIMMING KINEMATICS OF SHARKS , 1982 .

[6]  F. Fish.  POWER OUTPUT AND PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY OF SWIMMING BOTTLENOSE DOLPHINS (TURSIOPS TRUNCATUS) , 1993 .

[7]  N. Curtin,et al.  EFFICIENCY OF ENERGY CONVERSION DURING SINUSOIDAL MOVEMENT OF RED MUSCLE FIBRES FROM THE DOGFISH SCYLIORHINUS CANICULA , 1993 .

[8]  James M. Clark,et al.  Ancient marine reptiles , 1998 .

[9]  J. Altringham,et al.  Power output and the frequency of oscillatory work in mammalian diaphragm muscle: the effects of animal size. , 1991, The Journal of experimental biology.

[10]  Barbara A. Block,et al.  Direct measurement of swimming speeds and depth of blue marlin , 1992 .

[11]  S. Vogel,et al.  Life in Moving Fluids , 2020 .

[12]  中村 泉.  Billfishes of the world : an annotated and illustrated catalogue of marlins, sailfishes, spearfishes, and swordfishes known to date , 1985 .

[13]  A. Kilian,et al.  Energy expenditure of swimming bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) , 1999 .

[14]  M. Triantafyllou,et al.  Oscillating foils of high propulsive efficiency , 1998, Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

[15]  K. Streitlien,et al.  On Thrust Estimates for Flapping Foils , 1998 .

[16]  F E Fish,et al.  Comparative kinematics and hydrodynamics of odontocete cetaceans: morphological and ecological correlates with swimming performance. , 1998, The Journal of experimental biology.

[17]  Knut Schmidt-Nielsen,et al.  Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment , 1985 .

[18]  I. Nakamura.  FAO species catalogue. v. 5: Billfishes of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of marlins, sailfishes, spearfishes and swordfishes known to date , 2016 .

[19]  R. Motani,et al.  Eel-like swimming in the earliest ichthyosaurs , 1996, Nature.

[20]  Heusner Aa,et al.  Size and power in mammals. , 1991 .

[21]  R. Motani.  Phylogeny of the Ichthyopterygia , 1999 .

[22]  P. W. Webb,et al.  THE EFFECT OF SIZE AND SWIMMING SPEED ON LOCOMOTOR KINEMATICS OF RAINBOW TROUT , 1984 .

[23]  Paul W. Webb,et al.  Is the high cost of body/caudal fin undulatory swimming due to increased friction drag or inertial recoil? , 1992 .

[24]  Terrie M. Williams,et al.  The evolution of cost efficient swimming in marine mammals: limits to energetic optimization , 1999 .

[25]  Stephen J. Godfrey,et al.  Plesiosaur subaqueous locomotion - a reappraisal , 1984 .

[26]  Jon Lien,et al.  Propulsion of a fin whale ( Balenoptera physalus) : why the fin whale is a fast swimmer , 1989, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. B. Biological Sciences.

[27]  J. A. Massare.  Mechanics and Physiology of Animal Swimming: Swimming capabilities of Mesozoic marine reptiles: a review , 1994 .

[28]  S. Hoerner.  Fluid Dynamic Drag: Practical Information on Aerodynamic Drag and Hydrodynamic Resistance , 1965 .

[29]  B. Collette,et al.  FAO species catalogue. Volume 2. Scombrids of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of tunas, mackerels, bonitos and related species known to date. , 1983 .

[30]  J. Keen,et al.  Environmental preferences of yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) at the northern extent of its range , 1997 .

[31]  N C Heglund,et al.  Efficiency of vertebrate locomotory muscles. , 1985, The Journal of experimental biology.

[32]  A. S. Blix,et al.  Metabolic rates of minke whales (Balaenoptera acutorostrata) in cold water. , 1992, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[33]  J. A. Massare.  Swimming capabilities of Mesozoic marine reptiles: implications for method of predation , 1988, Paleobiology.

[34]  M. Csíkszentmihályi,et al.  Optimal experience: Introduction to Part IV , 1988 .

[35]  D. Brown.  THE ENGLISH UPPER JURASSIC PLESIOSAUROIDEA (REPTILIA) AND A REVIEW OF THE PHYLOGENY AND CLASSIFICATION OF THE PLESIOSAURIA , 1981 .

[36]  R. Bakker.  Experimental and Fossil Evidence for the Evolution of Tetrapod Bioenergetics , 1975 .

[37]  A. Heusner,et al.  Size and power in mammals. , 1991, The Journal of experimental biology.

[38]  Graham,et al.  STUDIES OF TROPICAL TUNA SWIMMING PERFORMANCE IN A LARGE WATER TUNNEL - ENERGETICS , 1994, The Journal of experimental biology.

[39]  Claireaux,et al.  Telemetry ' applied to behaviour analysis of yellowfin tuna ( Thunnus albacares , Bonnaterre , 1788 ) movements in a network of fish aggregating devices , 2002 .

[40]  P. Bushnell,et al.  Oxygen stores and aerobic metabolism in the leatherback sea turtle , 1992 .

[41]  C. Barclay,et al.  Efficiency of fast- and slow-twitch muscles of the mouse performing cyclic contractions. , 1994, The Journal of experimental biology.

[42]  W. Gurney,et al.  The metabolic cost of swimming in marine homeotherms. , 1997, The Journal of experimental biology.

[43]  B. Collette,et al.  Scombrids of the world : an annotated and illustrated catalogue of tunas, mackerels, bonitos, and related species known to date. v. 2 , 1983 .

[44]  F E Fish,et al.  Kinematics and estimated thrust production of swimming harp and ringed seals. , 1988, The Journal of experimental biology.

[45]  A. F. Bennett,et al.  A REAPPRAISAL OF THE AQUATIC SPECIALIZATIONS OF THE GALAPAGOS MARINE IGUANA (AMBLYRHYNCHUS CRISTATUS) , 1977, Evolution; international journal of organic evolution.

[46]  Triantafyllou,et al.  Near-body flow dynamics in swimming fish , 1999, The Journal of experimental biology.

[47]  C. Mcgowan.  Dinosaurs, spitfires, and sea dragons , 1991 .

[48]  T. Williams,et al.  The physiology of bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus): heart rate, metabolic rate and plasma lactate concentration during exercise. , 1993, The Journal of experimental biology.

[49]  James R. Spotila,et al.  Metabolism of leatherback turtles, gigantothermy, and thermoregulation of dinosaurs , 1990, Nature.