Biomaterials as Scaffold for Bone Tissue Engineering

Almost 20 years after the invention of tissue engineering, autogenous bone grafting has remained the favored strategy for the treatment of bone defects. As an alternative, a vast variety of bone substitutes has been developed and is available for clinical use. The ongoing search for bone substitutes, however, reflects the limitations imposed to both autogenous and allogenous bone grafts as well as to bone substitute materials. The concept of tissue engineering holds great promise for the future treatment of osseous defects. Research in this interdisciplinary field is carried out to find a way of producing biologic substitutes as functional tissue replacement. For this, functionally active cells are applied on supporting scaffolds under controlled stimulation with growth factors. Scaffolds are temporary matrices for bone growth and provide a specific environment and architecture for tissue development. Ideally, scaffolds favor cellular attachment, growth and differentiation in vitro and in vivo. Especially ceramics and biodegradable polymers are widely used and have been tested in various animal studies. Yet, to allow for precise production of specific custom-made scaffolds, rapid prototyping (RP) techniques have recently drawn a lot of attention. Using these methods scaffolds with a predefined, well-controlled internal and external architecture mimicking the structure of natural bone can be generated. Although biocompatibility of the materials used in the process and the structural resolution that can be technically achieved so far limit the range of use, rapid manufacturing techniques do offer great opportunities to generate suitable scaffolds for bone tissue engineering in the near future.

[1]  G. B. Stark,et al.  Tissue engineering of bone , 2002, Minimally invasive therapy & allied technologies : MITAT : official journal of the Society for Minimally Invasive Therapy.

[2]  E. Sachlos,et al.  Making tissue engineering scaffolds work. Review: the application of solid freeform fabrication technology to the production of tissue engineering scaffolds. , 2003, European cells & materials.

[3]  L Sedel,et al.  A biodegradable fibrin scaffold for mesenchymal stem cell transplantation. , 2003, Biomaterials.

[4]  P. Kasten,et al.  Evaluation of Mineralized Collagen and α-Tricalcium Phosphate as Scaffolds for Tissue Engineering of Bone Using Human Mesenchymal Stem Cells , 2004, Cells Tissues Organs.

[5]  Yasuhiko Tabata,et al.  Enhanced ectopic bone formation using a combination of plasmid DNA impregnation into 3-D scaffold and bioreactor perfusion culture. , 2006, Biomaterials.

[6]  W. Münster.  Beurteilung der Angiogenese und Osteogenese unter dem Einfluss von Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) , 2002 .

[7]  J. Jansen,et al.  Tissue Engineering of Bone , 1997 .

[8]  G. Daculsi,et al.  Macroporous biphasic calcium phosphate ceramics: influence of macropore diameter and macroporosity percentage on bone ingrowth. , 1998, Biomaterials.

[9]  A. Meunier,et al.  Tissue-engineered bone regeneration , 2000, Nature Biotechnology.

[10]  W. Mutschler,et al.  Knochenneubildung durch Osteogenic Protein-1 und autogenes Knochenmark im Problemdefektmodell der Schafstibia , 2005 .

[11]  R. Murthy.  Bone Graft Substitutes : Past , Present , Future , 2002 .

[12]  Tetsuji Yamaoka,et al.  Three‐dimensional cell seeding and growth in radial‐flow perfusion bioreactor for in vitro tissue reconstruction , 2006, Biotechnology and bioengineering.

[13]  L. Griffith,et al.  Tissue Engineering--Current Challenges and Expanding Opportunities , 2002, Science.

[14]  S. Milz,et al.  Hydroxyapatite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering made by 3D printing , 2005, Journal of materials science. Materials in medicine.

[15]  Min Wang,et al.  Developing bioactive composite materials for tissue replacement. , 2003, Biomaterials.

[16]  Jeffrey C. Wang,et al.  Demineralized bone matrix and spinal arthrodesis. , 2005, The spine journal : official journal of the North American Spine Society.

[17]  K. Takaoka,et al.  New synthetic biodegradable polymers as BMP carriers for bone tissue engineering. , 2003, Biomaterials.

[18]  F. Cui,et al.  Hierarchically biomimetic bone scaffold materials: nano-HA/collagen/PLA composite. , 2004, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part B, Applied biomaterials.

[19]  J. Vacanti,et al.  Tissue engineering. , 1993, Science.

[20]  S. E. Feinberg,et al.  Hydroxyapatite implants with designed internal architecture , 2001, Journal of materials science. Materials in medicine.

[21]  J. Glowacki.  A review of osteoinductive testing methods and sterilization processes for demineralized bone , 2005, Cell and Tissue Banking.

[22]  L. Fassina,et al.  Calcified matrix production by SAOS-2 cells inside a polyurethane porous scaffold, using a perfusion bioreactor. , 2005, Tissue engineering.

[23]  S. Bruder,et al.  Osteogenic differentiation of purified, culture‐expanded human mesenchymal stem cells in vitro , 1997, Journal of cellular biochemistry.

[24]  Thomas W Bauer,et al.  Bioactive materials in orthopaedic surgery: overview and regulatory considerations. , 2002, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[25]  H. Seitz,et al.  Three-dimensional printing of porous ceramic scaffolds for bone tissue engineering. , 2005, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part B, Applied biomaterials.

[26]  S D Cook,et al.  Effect of recombinant human osteogenic protein-1 on healing of segmental defects in non-human primates. , 1995, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[27]  V. Sikavitsas,et al.  Effect of bone extracellular matrix synthesized in vitro on the osteoblastic differentiation of marrow stromal cells. , 2005, Biomaterials.

[28]  Jeffrey C. Wang,et al.  Bone graft substitutes for spinal fusion. , 2003, The spine journal : official journal of the North American Spine Society.

[29]  I Zein,et al.  Mechanical properties and cell cultural response of polycaprolactone scaffolds designed and fabricated via fused deposition modeling. , 2001, Journal of biomedical materials research.

[30]  Antonios G Mikos,et al.  Design of a flow perfusion bioreactor system for bone tissue-engineering applications. , 2003, Tissue engineering.

[31]  S. Milz,et al.  The use of four‐colour immunofluorescence techniques to identify mesenchymal stem cells , 2004, Journal of anatomy.

[32]  R M Nerem,et al.  Bioengineered tissues: the science, the technology, and the industry. , 2005, Orthodontics & craniofacial research.

[33]  M Epple,et al.  A thorough physicochemical characterisation of 14 calcium phosphate-based bone substitution materials in comparison to natural bone. , 2004, Biomaterials.

[34]  Malcolm N. Cooke,et al.  Use of stereolithography to manufacture critical-sized 3D biodegradable scaffolds for bone ingrowth. , 2003, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part B, Applied biomaterials.

[35]  Gordana Vunjak-Novakovic,et al.  Engineering cartilage‐like tissue using human mesenchymal stem cells and silk protein scaffolds , 2004, Biotechnology and bioengineering.

[36]  Jennifer H. Elisseeff,et al.  Engineering Structurally Organized Cartilage and Bone Tissues , 2004, Annals of Biomedical Engineering.

[37]  M. Pittenger,et al.  Multilineage potential of adult human mesenchymal stem cells. , 1999, Science.

[38]  M S Chapekar,et al.  Tissue engineering: challenges and opportunities. , 2000, Journal of biomedical materials research.

[39]  C. V. van Blitterswijk,et al.  Bone tissue engineering for spine fusion: an experimental study on ectopic and orthotopic implants in rats. , 2004, Tissue engineering.

[40]  A J Verbout,et al.  Viable osteogenic cells are obligatory for tissue-engineered ectopic bone formation in goats. , 2003, Tissue engineering.

[41]  W. Hayes,et al.  Bone regeneration by implantation of purified, culture‐expanded human mesenchymal stem cells , 1998, Journal of orthopaedic research : official publication of the Orthopaedic Research Society.

[42]  J. Mcauliffe.  Bone graft substitutes. , 2003, Journal of hand therapy : official journal of the American Society of Hand Therapists.

[43]  B Derby,et al.  Novel collagen scaffolds with predefined internal morphology made by solid freeform fabrication. , 2003, Biomaterials.

[44]  L. Claes,et al.  New bioresorbable pin for the reduction of small bony fragments: design, mechanical properties and in vitro degradation. , 1996, Biomaterials.

[45]  A. Goldstein.  Effect of seeding osteoprogenitor cells as dense clusters on cell growth and differentiation. , 2001, Tissue engineering.

[46]  H. An,et al.  Update on bone morphogenetic proteins and their application in spine surgery. , 2005, Journal of the American College of Surgeons.

[47]  K. Hing.  Bone repair in the twenty–first century: biology, chemistry or engineering? , 2004, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences.

[48]  Terry Wohlers,et al.  The rapid prototyping/manufacturing industry , 2003 .

[49]  T M Barker,et al.  Stereolithographic (SL) biomodelling in craniofacial surgery. , 1998, British journal of plastic surgery.

[50]  Antonios G Mikos,et al.  Flow perfusion culture of marrow stromal osteoblasts in titanium fiber mesh. , 2003, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A.

[51]  H. Precheur.  Bone graft materials. , 2007, Dental clinics of North America.

[52]  G. Vunjak‐Novakovic,et al.  Cultivation of cell–polymer tissue constructs in simulated microgravity , 1995, Biotechnology and bioengineering.

[53]  Dietmar W Hutmacher,et al.  Periosteal cells in bone tissue engineering. , 2003, Tissue engineering.

[54]  S. Bruder,et al.  Mesenchymal stem cells: building blocks for molecular medicine in the 21st century. , 2001, Trends in molecular medicine.

[55]  L. Schweiberer,et al.  Sterilization of partially demineralized bone matrix: the effects of different sterilization techniques on osteogenetic properties. , 1995, The Journal of surgical research.

[56]  Yugyung Lee,et al.  Biomedical applications of collagen. , 2001, International journal of pharmaceutics.

[57]  A J Verbout,et al.  Design and fabrication of standardized hydroxyapatite scaffolds with a defined macro-architecture by rapid prototyping for bone-tissue-engineering research. , 2004, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A.

[58]  Michael J Lysaght,et al.  Tissue engineering: the end of the beginning. , 2004, Tissue engineering.

[59]  G. Zych,et al.  Osteogenic Protein-1 (Bone Morphogenetic Protein-7) in the Treatment of Tibial Nonunions: A Prospective, Randomized Clinical Trial Comparing rhOP-1 with Fresh Bone Autograft* , 2001, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. American volume.

[60]  L. Schweiberer,et al.  Knochenneubildung durch Knochenersatzmaterialien , 1998 .

[61]  L. Claes,et al.  In vitro biocompatibility of bioresorbable polymers: poly(L, DL-lactide) and poly(L-lactide-co-glycolide). , 1996, Biomaterials.

[62]  E. D. Rekow,et al.  Performance of hydroxyapatite bone repair scaffolds created via three-dimensional fabrication techniques. , 2003, Journal of biomedical materials research. Part A.

[63]  福井 雅士.  Ectopic bone formation facilitated by human mesenchymal stem cells and osteogenic cytokines via nutrient vessel injection in a nude rat model , 2005 .

[64]  Hajime Ohgushi,et al.  Observation of osteogenic differentiation cascade of living mesenchymal stem cells on transparent hydroxyapatite ceramics. , 2005, Biomaterials.

[65]  S. Santavirta,et al.  Immune response to polyglycolic acid implants. , 1990, The Journal of bone and joint surgery. British volume.

[66]  J. W. Barlow,et al.  Biocompatibility of SLS-Formed Calcium Phosphate Implants , 1996 .

[67]  M. Urist,et al.  Bone: Formation by Autoinduction , 1965, Science.

[68]  D. Kohn,et al.  Effects of pH on human bone marrow stromal cells in vitro: implications for tissue engineering of bone. , 2002, Journal of biomedical materials research.

[69]  S. Akita,et al.  Ectopic bone formation facilitated by human mesenchymal stem cells and osteogenic cytokines via nutrient vessel injection in a nude rat model , 2005, Wound repair and regeneration : official publication of the Wound Healing Society [and] the European Tissue Repair Society.

[70]  G. Muschler,et al.  Bone graft materials. An overview of the basic science. , 2000, Clinical orthopaedics and related research.

[71]  L. Claes,et al.  Entwicklung neuer biodegradabler Implantate , 2002, Der Chirurg.

[72]  Pierre Hardouin,et al.  Biomaterial challenges and approaches to stem cell use in bone reconstructive surgery. , 2004, Drug discovery today.

[73]  G. Vunjak‐Novakovic,et al.  Bioreactor cultivation of osteochondral grafts. , 2005, Orthodontics & craniofacial research.

[74]  Rui L Reis,et al.  Bone tissue engineering: state of the art and future trends. , 2004, Macromolecular bioscience.

[75]  S. Berven,et al.  Clinical applications of bone graft substitutes in spine surgery: consideration of mineralized and demineralized preparations and growth factor supplementation , 2001, European Spine Journal.

[76]  H. Nakagawa,et al.  Cranial bone defect healing is accelerated by mesenchymal stem cells induced by coadministration of bone morphogenetic protein‐2 and basic fibroblast growth factor , 2004, Wound repair and regeneration : official publication of the Wound Healing Society [and] the European Tissue Repair Society.

[77]  L. Rimondini,et al.  In vivo experimental study on bone regeneration in critical bone defects using an injectable biodegradable PLA/PGA copolymer. , 2005, Oral surgery, oral medicine, oral pathology, oral radiology, and endodontics.

[78]  T. Clineff,et al.  Potential of an ultraporous β-tricalcium phosphate synthetic cancellous bone void filler and bone marrow aspirate composite graft , 2001, European Spine Journal.

[79]  J. Rueger.  KNOCHENERSATZMITTEL: HEUTIGER STAND UND AUSBLICK , 1998 .

[80]  Rolf Mülhaupt,et al.  Desktop manufacturing of complex objects, prototypes and biomedical scaffolds by means of computer‐assisted design combined with computer‐guided 3D plotting of polymers and reactive oligomers , 2000 .