Cardiovascular Adjustments to Heat Stress

The sections in this article are: 1 Cutaneous Vascular Responses to Heat Stress 1.1 Microvascular Anatomy 1.2 Efferent Neural Control of Skin Blood Flow 1.3 Local Thermal Control of Cutaneous Blood Vessels 2 Hemodynamic Responses to Heat Stress 2.1 Cardiac Output during Heat Stress 2.2 Cardiovascular Pressures 3 Regional Circulatory Responses to Heat Stress 3.1 Splanchnic Circulation 3.2 Renal Circulation 3.3 Skeletal Muscle Circulation 3.4 Circulation to Brain and Spinal Cord 3.5 Coronary Circulation 4 Modifiers of Control by Internal Temperature 4.1 Thermoregulatory Modifications 4.2 Nonthermoregulatory Modifications 5 Conclusion

[1]  E. Traks,et al.  The effects of dry heat on the circulation of man. II. Splanchnic hemodynamics. , 1959, American heart journal.

[2]  D T Mason,et al.  Partition of Blood Flow to the Cutaneous and Muscular Beds of the Forearm at Rest and during Leg Exercise in Normal Subjects and in Patients with Heart Failure , 1969, Circulation research.

[3]  D. A. Blair,et al.  Vasomotor fibres to skin in the upper arm, calf and thigh , 1960, The Journal of physiology.

[4]  H. Barcroft,et al.  The effect of mental arithmetic on the blood flow through normal, sympathectomized and hyperhidrotic hands , 1959, The Journal of physiology.

[5]  John M. Johnson,et al.  The Cutaneous Circulation , 1990 .

[6]  Cardiac response to whole-body heating. , 1979, Aviation, space, and environmental medicine.

[7]  G. Haeusler,et al.  On the mechanism of the adrenergic nerve blocking action of bretylium , 2005, Naunyn-Schmiedebergs Archiv für Pharmakologie.

[8]  D. O'Leary,et al.  Mode of neural control mediating rat tail vasodilation during heating. , 1985, Journal of applied physiology.

[9]  J. Hales,et al.  Influence of heat stress on exercise-induced changes in regional blood flow in sheep. , 1983, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[10]  K. Hagbarth,et al.  Thermoregulatory and rhythm‐generating mechanisms governing the sudomotor and vasoconstrictor outflow in human cutaneous nerves. , 1980, The Journal of physiology.

[11]  G. Brandenberger,et al.  Plasma aldosterone, renin activity, and cortisol responses to heat exposure in sodium depleted and repleted subjects , 1979, European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology.

[12]  J. Hales,et al.  Skin AVA and capillary dilatation and constriction induced by local skin heating , 1985, Pflügers Archiv.

[13]  J. W. Bennett,et al.  Integrated changes in regional circulatory activity evoked by thermal stimulation of the hypothalamus , 1977, Pflügers Archiv.

[14]  J. Sadowski,et al.  Renal function changes during preoptic-anterior hypothalamic heating in the rabbit , 1977, Pflügers Archiv.

[15]  B. Wallin,et al.  Direct evidence of active sympathetic vasodilatation in the skin of the human foot. , 1989, The Journal of physiology.

[16]  L. Werko,et al.  Hemodynamic influence of warm and dry environment in man with and without rheumatic heart disease. , 2009, Acta Medica Scandinavica.

[17]  L. Lindblad,et al.  Neural regulation of vascular tone and cold induced vasoconstriction in human finger skin. , 1990, Journal of the autonomic nervous system.

[18]  S. Said,et al.  Deficient vasoactive intestinal peptide innervation in the sweat glands of cystic fibrosis patients. , 1985, Science.

[19]  E. R. Clark.  ARTERIO-VENOUS ANASTOMOSES , 1938 .

[20]  B. Zimmerman,et al.  INFLUENCE OF HISTAIMINE H1 AND H2‐RECEPTOR BLOCKERS ON SYMPATHETIC VASODILATOR AND VASOCONSTRICTOR RESPONSES IN CANINE PAW , 1975, British journal of pharmacology.

[21]  R. Shanks,et al.  The relationship between the onset of sweating and vasodilatation in the forearm during body heating , 1962, The Journal of physiology.

[22]  S. I. Cohen,et al.  Cardiovascular response to acute thermal stress (hot dry environment) in unacclimatized normal subjects. , 1968, American heart journal.

[23]  K. Hagbarth,et al.  Regional similarities and differences in thermoregulatory vaso‐ and sudomotor tone. , 1980, The Journal of physiology.

[24]  R. Gonnering,et al.  Pharmacology of Botulinum Toxin , 1993, International ophthalmology clinics.

[25]  G. Brengelmann,et al.  Cystic fibrosis, vasoactive intestinal polypeptide, and active cutaneous vasodilation. , 1990, Journal of applied physiology.

[26]  J. Mosley.  A reduction in some vasodilator responses in free-standing man. , 1969, Cardiovascular research.

[27]  I M Braverman,et al.  Ultrastructure of the human dermal microcirculation: the horizontal plexus of the papillary dermis. , 1976, The Journal of investigative dermatology.

[28]  E. Simon,et al.  Differentiation of cutaneous and intestinal blood flow during hypothalamic heating and cooling in anesthetized dogs , 2004, Pflügers Archiv.

[29]  E. Nadel,et al.  Forearm vascular responses to baroreceptor unloading at the onset of dynamic exercise. , 1993, Journal of applied physiology.

[30]  A. Sollevi,et al.  Evidence for co‐transmitter role of neuropeptide Y in the pig spleen , 1989, British journal of pharmacology.

[31]  E. Nadel,et al.  Effect of saline infusion during exercise on thermal and circulatory regulations. , 1990, Journal of applied physiology.

[32]  J. Johnson,et al.  Roles of absolute and relative load in skin vasoconstrictor responses to exercise. , 1990, Journal of applied physiology.

[33]  J. Hales.  Effects of exposure to hot environments on the regional distribution of blood flow and on cardiorespiratory function in sheep , 1973, Pflügers Archiv.

[34]  V. Convertino,et al.  Altered thermoregulatory responses after 15 days of head-down tilt. , 1994, Journal of applied physiology.

[35]  J. Johnson,et al.  Effect of upright exercise on threshold for cutaneous vasodilation and sweating. , 1981, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[36]  E. Nadel,et al.  Forearm blood flow during body temperature transients produced by leg exercise. , 1975, Journal of applied physiology.

[37]  E. Nemoto,et al.  Cerebrovascular response during progressive hyperthermia in dogs. , 1970, The American journal of physiology.

[38]  C R Wyss,et al.  Sustained human skin and muscle vasoconstriction with reduced baroreceptor activity. , 1973, Journal of applied physiology.

[39]  C. Gisolfi,et al.  Splanchnic sympathetic nerve activity and circulating catecholamines in the hyperthermic rat. , 1991, Journal of applied physiology.

[40]  I M Braverman,et al.  Ultrastructure and organization of the cutaneous microvasculature in normal and pathologic states. , 1989, The Journal of investigative dermatology.

[41]  L. Rowell,et al.  Forearm skin and muscle vascular responses to prolonged leg exercise in man. , 1975, Journal of applied physiology.

[42]  J M Detry,et al.  Skin and muscle components of forearm blood flow in directly heated resting man. , 1972, Journal of applied physiology.

[43]  E. Buskirk,et al.  Effect of mild essential hypertension on control of forearm blood flow during exercise in the heat. , 1984, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[44]  M. Joyner,et al.  Is nitric oxide involved in cutaneous vasodilation during body heating in humans? , 1994, Journal of applied physiology.

[45]  M. Iriki,et al.  Thermally-induced cutaneous sympathetic activity related to blood flow through capillaries and arteriovenous anastomoses , 1978, Pflügers Archiv.

[46]  H. Barcroft,et al.  Reflex vasodilatation in human skeletal muscle in response to heating the body , 1947, The Journal of physiology.

[47]  K. Johansen,et al.  Heat exchange through the muskrat tail. Evidence for vasodilator nerves to the skin. , 1962, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[48]  A. D. Jose,et al.  The effects of exercise and changes in body temperature on the intrinsic heart rate in man. , 1970, American heart journal.

[49]  B. Folkow,et al.  The sympathetic vasomotor innervation of the skin of the dog. , 1949, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[50]  O G Edholm,et al.  The effect of temperature on blood flow and deep temperature in the human forearm , 1943, The Journal of physiology.

[51]  E R Nadel,et al.  Circulatory regulation during exercise in different ambient temperatures. , 1979, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[52]  C R Wyss,et al.  Control of skin blood flow, sweating, and heart rate: role of skin vs. core temperature. , 1974, Journal of applied physiology.

[53]  M. Iriki,et al.  Integrated changes in regional circulatory activity evoked by spinal cord and peripheral thermoreceptor stimulation , 1975, Brain Research.

[54]  A. Gorman,et al.  Influence of Heat Stress on Arterial Baroreflex Control of Heart Rate in the Baboon , 1982, Circulation research.

[55]  E. Nadel,et al.  Role of cardiopulmonary baroreflexes during dynamic exercise. , 1988, Journal of applied physiology.

[56]  M. Iriki,et al.  Renal and cutaneous vasomotor and respiratory rate adjustments to peripheral cold and warm stimuli and to bacterial endotoxin in conscious rabbits. , 1982, Journal of the autonomic nervous system.

[57]  C. Yoran,et al.  The effect of β-adrenoceptor blockade on body temperature and plasma renin activity in heat-exposed man. , 1974, British journal of clinical pharmacology.

[58]  J. C. Ross,et al.  Effect of increased environmental temperature on pulmonary diffusing capacity. , 1966, Journal of applied physiology.

[59]  E. M. Glaser.  The effects of cooling and warming on the vital capacity, forearm and hand volume, and skin temperature of man , 1949, Journal of Physiology.

[60]  H. Adlercreutz,et al.  Plasma renin activity, angiotensin II, and aldosterone during intense heat stress. , 1976, Journal of applied physiology.

[61]  B. Kaada,et al.  In search of mediators of skin vasodilation induced by transcutaneous nerve stimulation: I. Failure to block the response by antagonists of endogenous vasodilators. , 1983, General pharmacology.

[62]  D L Kellogg,et al.  Control of internal temperature threshold for active cutaneous vasodilation by dynamic exercise. , 1991, Journal of applied physiology.

[63]  G. Brengelmann,et al.  Sweat rate vs. forearm blood flow during lower body negative pressure. , 1985, Journal of applied physiology.

[64]  R. Westerman,et al.  Neurogenic vasodilation in the rat hairy skin measured using a laser Doppler flowmeter. , 1989, Life sciences.

[65]  S. Horvath,et al.  Cardiovascular and temperature regulatory changes during progressive dehydration and euhydration. , 1972, Journal of applied physiology.

[66]  A. Greenfield,et al.  The interrelation of thermoregulatory and baroreceptor reflexes in the control of the blood vessels in the human forearm , 1966, The Journal of physiology.

[67]  C V Greenway,et al.  Hepatic vascular bed. , 1971, Physiological reviews.

[68]  O G EDHOLM,et al.  The effect of body heating on the circulation in skin and muscle , 1956, The Journal of physiology.

[69]  J. Hales.  Effects of heat stress on blood flow in respiratory and non-respiratory muscles in the sheep , 1973, Pflügers Archiv.

[70]  B. Zimmerman,et al.  Activation of sustained sympathetic vasodilatation in dog by spinal cord stimulation , 1976, Experientia.

[71]  L. Rowell,et al.  Human cardiovascular adjustments to exercise and thermal stress. , 1974, Physiological reviews.

[72]  R. F. Whelan,et al.  Evidence from venous oxygen saturation measurements that the increase in forearm blood flow during body heating is confined to the skin , 1956, The Journal of physiology.

[73]  R. Thauer,et al.  Der Kreislauf im Dienste der Wärmeregulation , 1943 .

[74]  J. Grayson.  Vascular reactions in the human intestine , 1949, The Journal of physiology.

[75]  S. Hilton,et al.  The relationship between glandular activity, bradykinin formation and functional vaso‐dilatation in the submandibular salivary gland , 1956, The Journal of physiology.

[76]  J. Johnson,et al.  Baroreflex control of the cutaneous active vasodilator system in humans. , 1990, Circulation research.

[77]  E. Simon,et al.  Neurogenic vasodilatatory component in the thermoregulatory skin blood flow response of the dog , 2004, Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology.

[78]  G. Koroxenidis,et al.  Cardiovascular response to acute heat stress. , 1961, Journal of applied physiology.

[79]  J. Sikorski,et al.  The effects of lower body negative pressure on hand blood flow. , 1969, Cardiovascular research.

[80]  J. Piiper.  [Blood circulation in arteriovenous anastomoses and heat exchange in dog extremities]. , 1959, Pflugers Archiv fur die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere.

[81]  U. Söderberg.  Changes in muscle circulation elicited by local heating of hypothalamus , 1956, Experientia.

[82]  B. Folkow,et al.  Cutaneous vasodilatation elicited by local heating of the anterior hypothalamus in cats and dogs. , 1949, Acta physiologica Scandinavica.

[83]  D. O'Leary,et al.  Baroreflex control of the rat tail circulation in normothermia and hyperthermia. , 1989, Journal of applied physiology.

[84]  B. Saltin,et al.  Muscle blood flow and muscle metabolism during exercise and heat stress. , 1990, Journal of applied physiology.

[85]  L. Rowell,et al.  Control of baboon limb blood flow and heart rate-role of skin vs. core temperature. , 1976, The American journal of physiology.

[86]  E. Nadel,et al.  Effect of hyperosmolality on control of blood flow and sweating. , 1984, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[87]  S. Robinson,et al.  Effects of environmental heat stress and exercise on renal blood flow and filtration rate. , 1949, Journal of applied physiology.

[88]  R. W. Bullard,et al.  Sweating: Its Rapid Response to Muscular Work , 1963, Science.

[89]  J. H. Smith,et al.  Renal responses to exercise, heat and dehydration. , 1952, Journal of applied physiology.

[90]  E. Nadel,et al.  Cutaneous vascular reflexes during exercise in the heat. , 1990, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[91]  O. Edholm,et al.  Nervous control of the cutaneous circulation. , 1963, British medical bulletin.

[92]  L. Rowell,et al.  Altered control of skin blood flow during exercise at high internal temperatures. , 1977, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[93]  D. Proppe.  alpha-Adrenergic control of intestinal circulation in heat-stressed baboons. , 1980, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[94]  M. Iriki,et al.  Regional differentiation of sympathetic activity during hypothalamic heating and cooling in anesthetized rabbits , 2004, Pflügers Archiv.

[95]  H. Frankel,et al.  Cerebrovascular response to CO 2 during hyperthermia. , 1972, The American journal of physiology.

[96]  P GASKELL,et al.  Are there sympathetic vasodilator nerves to the vessels of the hands? , 1956, The Journal of physiology.

[97]  C. Tipton,et al.  Mechanism for pressor response to nonexertional heating in the conscious rat. , 1991, Journal of applied physiology.

[98]  G. Fisone,et al.  Regulation of the release of coexisting neurotransmitters. , 1988, Annual review of pharmacology and toxicology.

[99]  Michal Horowitz,et al.  Heat acclimated hypohydrated rats: Age dependent vasomotor and plasma volume responses to heat stress , 1991 .

[100]  B. Wallin,et al.  Direct evidence of neurally mediated vasodilatation in hairy skin of the human foot. , 1987, The Journal of physiology.

[101]  C. Gisolfi,et al.  Circulatory responses to vasoconstrictor agents during passive heating in the rat. , 1990, Journal of applied physiology.

[102]  L. Rowell,et al.  Competition between cutaneous vasodilator and vasoconstrictor reflexes in man. , 1973, Journal of applied physiology.

[103]  P. Salisbury,et al.  Influence of Blood Temperature on the Pulmonary Circulation , 1958, Circulation Research.

[104]  P. Daniel,et al.  Arteriovenous anastomoses in the external ear. , 1956, Quarterly journal of experimental physiology and cognate medical sciences.

[105]  R. Dampney,et al.  The redistribution of cardiac output in the dog during heat stress , 1975 .

[106]  P. Daniel,et al.  Arteriovenous anastomoses in the human external ear. , 1956, Journal of anatomy.

[107]  D. Johnson,et al.  Tissue-specific noradrenergic activity during acute heat stress in rats. , 1993, Journal of applied physiology.

[108]  E. Bülbring,et al.  Sympathetic vaso‐dilatation in the skin and the intestine of the dog , 1936, The Journal of physiology.

[109]  J. Grayson.  The measurement of intestinal blood flow in man , 1951, The Journal of physiology.

[110]  L. Rowell,et al.  Renal vascular response to heat stress in baboons--role of renin-angiotensin. , 1977, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[111]  Norman E. Freeman,et al.  THE EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE RATE OF BLOOD FLOW IN THE NORMAL AND IN THE SYMPATHECTOMIZED HAND , 1935 .

[112]  W. Jänig,et al.  Differentiation of vasodilator and sudomotor responses in the cat paw pad to preganglionic sympathetic stimulation. , 1985, The Journal of physiology.

[113]  F. Abboud,et al.  The role of low pressure baroreceptors in reflex vasoconstrictor responses in man. , 1972, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[114]  O G EDHOLM,et al.  Vasomotor control of the cutaneous blood vessels in the human forearm , 1957, The Journal of physiology.

[115]  L. Rowell,et al.  Human Splanchnic and Forearm Vasoconstrictor Responses to Reductions of Right Atrial and Aortic Pressures , 1974, Circulation research.

[116]  L. Rowell,et al.  Redistribution of blood flow during sustained high skin temperature in resting man. , 1970, Journal of applied physiology.

[117]  J. Bull,et al.  Sweating, hemodynamic responses, and thermal equilibration during hyperthermia in humans. , 1987, Journal of applied physiology.

[118]  B. Billing,et al.  The effect of adrenaline and noradrenaline on hepatic blood flow and splanchnic carbohydrate metabolism in man , 1951, The Journal of physiology.

[119]  E. Nadel,et al.  Effect of hypovolemia on forearm vascular resistance control during exercise in the heat. , 1991, Journal of applied physiology.

[120]  R. Goldsmith,et al.  Blood flow and other thermoregulatory changes with acclimatization to heat , 1963, The Journal of physiology.

[121]  R. F. Whelan,et al.  The contribution of constrictor and dilator nerves to the skin vasodilatation during body heating , 1957, The Journal of physiology.

[122]  Comparison of the forearm and calf blood flow response to thermal stress during dynamic exercise. , 1992, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[123]  J. Dudel,et al.  Aktionspotential und Mechanogramm des Katzenpapillarmuskels als Funktion der Temperatur , 2004, Pflüger's Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere.

[124]  W. L. Kenney,et al.  Control of skin blood flow during exercise. , 1992, Medicine and science in sports and exercise.

[125]  J. W. Bennett,et al.  Thermal control of blood flow through capillaries and arteriovenous anastomoses in skin of sheep , 1978, Pflügers Archiv.

[126]  W. C. Randall,et al.  Cutaneous vascular and sweating responses to tympanic and skin temperatures. , 1966, Journal of applied physiology.

[127]  H. D. Green,et al.  Autonomic control of blood flow in hind paw of the dog. , 1956, The American journal of physiology.

[128]  E. Simon,et al.  Antagonistic changes of blood flow and sympathetic activity in different vascular beds following central thermal stimulation , 2004, Pflügers Archiv.

[129]  I. Ninomiya,et al.  Reflex effects of thermal stimulation on sympathetic nerve activity to skin and kidney. , 1976, The American journal of physiology.

[130]  W. Jänig,et al.  Response pattern of cutaneous postganglionic neurones to the hindlimb on spinal cord heating and cooling in the cat , 1976, Pflügers Archiv.

[131]  L A Stephenson,et al.  Effect of nerve block on response of forearm blood flow to local temperature. , 1986, Journal of applied physiology.

[132]  J. Johnson,et al.  Graded cutaneous vascular responses to dynamic leg exercise. , 1988, Journal of applied physiology.

[133]  A. R. Lind,et al.  Cardiovascular changes during syncope induced by tilting men in the heat. , 1968, Journal of applied physiology.

[134]  W. Riedel,et al.  Neurogenic non-adrenergic cutaneous vasodilatation elicited by hypothalamic thermal stimulation in dogs , 1982, Pflügers Archiv.

[135]  C. Gisolfi,et al.  Circulatory responses to heat after celiac ganglionectomy or adrenal demedullation. , 1989, Journal of applied physiology.

[136]  L. Rowell,et al.  Splanchnic vasoconstriction in hyperthermic man--role of falling blood pressure. , 1971, Journal of applied physiology.

[137]  H. Hensel,et al.  Die Muskeldurchblutung des Menschen bei indirekter Erwärmung und Abkühlung , 2004, Pflüger's Archiv für die gesamte Physiologie des Menschen und der Tiere.

[138]  E R Nadel,et al.  Interaction of local and reflex thermal effects in control of forearm blood flow. , 1985, Journal of applied physiology.

[139]  W F Taylor,et al.  Effect of high local temperature on reflex cutaneous vasodilation. , 1984, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[140]  K. Hagbarth,et al.  Cardiac rhythmicity of skin sympathetic activity recorded from peripheral nerves in man. , 1981, Journal of the autonomic nervous system.

[141]  L. Rowell,et al.  Interactions between local and reflex influences on human forearm skin blood flow. , 1976, Journal of applied physiology.

[142]  E. Braunwald,et al.  The role of skin and muscle resistance vessels in reflexes mediated by the baroreceptor system. , 1970, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[143]  O. Korhonen,et al.  Effect of work load on cutaneous vascular response to exercise. , 1991, Journal of applied physiology.

[144]  G. S. Kanter.  Glomerular filtration and renal plasma flow during hyperthermia. , 1960, The American journal of physiology.

[145]  E. Simon,et al.  Regional blood flow antagonism induced by central thermal stimulation in the conscious dog , 2005, Experientia.

[146]  T. Benzinger,et al.  ON PHYSICAL HEAT REGULATION AND THE SENSE OF TEMPERATURE IN MAN. , 1959, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[147]  A. Gorman,et al.  Mechanisms producing tachycardia in conscious baboons during environmental heat stress. , 1984, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[148]  G. Whittow.  The effect of hyperthermia on the systemic and pulmonary circulation of the ox (Bos taurus). , 1965, Quarterly journal of experimental physiology and cognate medical sciences.

[149]  T. Cooper,et al.  Cardiac and peripheral vascular responses to hyperthermia induced by blood stream heating. , 1962, The Journal of thoracic and cardiovascular surgery.

[150]  H. Wagner,et al.  Regulation of arteriovenous anastomotic and capillary blood flow in the dog leg. , 1972, The American journal of physiology.

[151]  G. Brengelmann.  Circulatory adjustments to exercise and heat stress. , 1983, Annual review of physiology.

[152]  M. Kolka,et al.  Cutaneous blood flow and local sweating after systemic atropine administration , 1987, Pflügers Archiv - European Journal of Physiology.

[153]  R McCarty,et al.  Relationship between plasma norepinephrine and sympathetic neural activity. , 1983, Hypertension.

[154]  W M Arnott,et al.  Effect of ulnar nerve block on blood flow in the reflexly vasodilated digit , 1948, The Journal of physiology.

[155]  F. T. Moore,et al.  Contractility of the heart in abnormal temperatures. , 1966, The Annals of thoracic surgery.

[156]  C. Ferrario,et al.  Altered neural control of cardiovascular function in sodium-depleted dogs , 1982 .

[157]  E. Simon,et al.  Diversity of regional sympathetic outflow in integrative cardiovascular control: Patterns and mechanisms , 1975, Brain Research.

[158]  K. Sato,et al.  Activation of aldosterone and renin secretion by thermal stress , 1972, Experientia.

[159]  C. Gisolfi,et al.  Peripheral vascular responses to hyperthermia in the rat. , 1988, Journal of applied physiology.

[160]  J. Hales,et al.  Cutaneous arteriovenous anastomoses present in the tail but absent from the ear of the rat. , 1977, Journal of anatomy.

[161]  L. Cronau,et al.  Relation of local skin temperature and local sweating to cutaneous blood flow. , 1963, Journal of applied physiology.

[162]  D. A. Blair,et al.  Cutaneous vasomotor nerves to the head and trunk , 1961 .

[163]  N. El-Sherif,et al.  The effect of acute thermal stress on general and pulmonary hemodynamics in the cardiac patient. , 1970, American heart journal.

[164]  D. Proppe.  Effect of sodium depletion on peripheral vascular responses to heat stress in baboons. , 1987, Journal of applied physiology.

[165]  D L Kellogg,et al.  Skin of the dorsal aspect of human hands and fingers possesses an active vasodilator system. , 1995, Journal of applied physiology.

[166]  D. Proppe.  Control of plasma renin activity in heat-stressed baboons on varied salt intake. , 1987, Journal of applied physiology.

[167]  G. Rhoon,et al.  Cardiovascular changes during whole body hyperthermia treatment of advanced malignancy , 2004, European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology.

[168]  M. Iriki,et al.  Antagonistic changes of blood flow and sympathetic activity in different vascular beds following central thermal stimulation , 2004, Pflügers Archiv.

[169]  L. Rowell,et al.  Splanchnic vasoconstriction in heat-stressed men: role of renin-angiotensin system. , 1982, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[170]  E. Simon,et al.  Arterial baroreceptor function in differential cardiovascular adjustments induced by central thermal stimulation , 2005, Basic Research in Cardiology.

[171]  R. H. Fox,et al.  Bradykinin formation in human skin as a factor in heat vasodilatation , 1958, The Journal of physiology.

[172]  R T GRANT,et al.  Vasodilatation and body warming in the rat , 1963, The Journal of physiology.

[173]  C B Wenger,et al.  Control of skin blood flow during exercise by thermal reflexes and baroreflexes. , 1980, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[174]  E R Nadel,et al.  Forearm skin and muscle vasoconstriction during lower body negative pressure. , 1986, Journal of applied physiology.

[175]  D. O'Leary,et al.  Effect of local warming on forearm reactive hyperaemia. , 1986, Clinical physiology.

[176]  B. Saltin,et al.  Muscle blood flow is not reduced in humans during moderate exercise and heat stress. , 1988, Journal of applied physiology.

[177]  H. Nose,et al.  Canine blood volume and cardiovascular function during hyperthermia. , 1983, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[178]  C. Tipton,et al.  Arterial baroreceptor reflex modulation of sympathetic-cardiovascular adjustments to heat stress. , 1990, Hypertension.

[179]  J. T. Shepherd,et al.  The Effect of Warming on Adrenergic Neurotransmission in Canine Cutaneous Vein , 1984, Circulation research.

[180]  B. Saltin,et al.  Human circulatory and thermoregulatory adaptations with heat acclimation and exercise in a hot, dry environment. , 1993, The Journal of physiology.

[181]  J. Johnson,et al.  Effect of heat stress on cutaneous vascular responses to the initiation of exercise. , 1982, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[182]  L. Rowell,et al.  Cardiovascular responses to heat stress and blood volume displacements during exercise in man , 2004, European Journal of Applied Physiology and Occupational Physiology.

[183]  J. Hales.  Effects of exposure to hot environments on total and regional blood flow in the brain and spinal cord of the sheep , 1973, Pflügers Archiv.

[184]  L. Rowell,et al.  Altered control of skin blood flow at high skin and core temperatures. , 1975, Journal of applied physiology.

[185]  B. Zimmerman,et al.  Peripheral distribution of cutaneous sympathetic vasodilator system. , 1972, The American journal of physiology.

[186]  E. Coyle,et al.  Fluid ingestion during exercise increases skin blood flow independent of increases in blood volume. , 1992, Journal of applied physiology.

[187]  J. Johnson,et al.  Reflex control of skin blood flow by skin temperature: role of core temperature. , 1979, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[188]  E R Nadel,et al.  Effect of hydration state of circulatory and thermal regulations. , 1980, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[189]  J A Stolwijk,et al.  Skin blood flow and sweating changes following exercise training and heat acclimation. , 1977, Journal of applied physiology: respiratory, environmental and exercise physiology.

[190]  K. Pleschka.  Control of tongue blood flow in regulation of heat loss in mammals. , 1984, Reviews of physiology, biochemistry and pharmacology.

[191]  T. Morimoto.  Thermoregulation and body fluids: role of blood volume and central venous pressure. , 1990, The Japanese journal of physiology.

[192]  J. Johnson,et al.  Nonthermoregulatory control of human skin blood flow. , 1986, Journal of applied physiology.