Rapid evolution of RNA genomes.

RNA viruses show high mutation frequencies partly because of a lack of the proofreading enzymes that assure fidelity of DNA replication. This high mutation frequency is coupled with high rates of replication reflected in rates of RNA genome evolution which can be more than a millionfold greater than the rates of the DNA chromosome evolution of their hosts. There are some disease implications for the DNA-based biosphere of this rapidly evolving RNA biosphere.

[1]  A. Notkins,et al.  The causes of diabetes. , 1979, Scientific American.

[2]  C. Jones,et al.  Virus carrier state suppresses tumorigenicity of tumor cells in athymic (nude) mice. , 1979, The Journal of general virology.

[3]  W. J. Bean,et al.  Similar frequencies of antigenic variants in Sendai, vesicular stomatitis, and influenza A viruses. , 1980, Virology.

[4]  G. Air,et al.  Sequence relationships among the hemagglutinin genes of 12 subtypes of influenza A virus. , 1981, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[5]  G. Air,et al.  Antigenic drift in type A influenza virus: sequence differences in the hemagglutinin of Hong Kong (H3N2) variants selected with monoclonal hybridoma antibodies. , 1979, Virology.

[6]  H. Koprowski,et al.  Use of hybridoma monoclonal antibodies in the detection of antigenic differences between rabies and rabies-related virus proteins. II. The glycoprotein. , 1980, The Journal of general virology.

[7]  E. Domingo,et al.  Nucleotide sequence heterogeneity of the RNA from a natural population of foot-and-mouth-disease virus. , 1980, Gene.

[8]  G. Both,et al.  Conservation and variation in the hemagglutinins of Hong Kong subtype influenza viruses during antigenic drift , 1981, Journal of virology.

[9]  J. Bruenn,et al.  Yeast viral double-stranded RNAs have heterogeneous 3′ termini , 1980, Cell.

[10]  J. Holland,et al.  Factors involved in the generation and replication of rhabdovirus defective T particles , 1976, Journal of virology.

[11]  S. Tonegawa,et al.  Identification and nucleotide sequence of a diversity DNA segment (D) of immunoglobulin heavy-chain genes , 1981, Nature.

[12]  V. Stollar,et al.  Failure of defective interfering particles of Sindbis virus produced in BHK or chicken cells to affect viral replication in Aedes albopictus cells , 1976, Journal of virology.

[13]  B. Fields,et al.  Isolation and preliminary genetic and biochemical characterization of temperature-sensitive mutants of reovirus. , 1969, Virology.

[14]  J. Holland,et al.  Absence of transcriptase activity or transcription-inhibiting ability in defective interfering particles of vesicular stomatitis virus. , 1972, Virology.

[15]  J. Holland,et al.  Viruses isolated from cells persistently infected with vesicular stomatitis virus show altered interactions with defective interfering particles , 1980, Journal of virology.

[16]  J. Holland,et al.  Analysis of Virus Replication in Ageing Human Fibroblast Cultures , 1973, Nature.

[17]  A. King,et al.  Biochemical evidence of recombination within the unsegmented RNA genome of aphthovirus , 1982, Journal of virology.

[18]  Walter Fiers,et al.  Complete structure of A/duck/Ukraine/63 influenza hemagglutinin gene: Animal virus as progenitor of human H3 Hong Kong 1968 influenza hemagglutinin , 1981, Cell.

[19]  J. Coffin,et al.  Oligonucleotide fingerprints of RNA species obtained from rhabdoviruses belonging to the vesicular stomatitis virus subgroup , 1977, Journal of virology.

[20]  F. Murphy.  Rabies pathogenesis. Brief review. , 1977 .

[21]  J. Holland,et al.  Studies on tumorigenicity of cells persistently infected with vesicular stomatitis virus in nude mice. , 1980, Virology.

[22]  M. Kimura.  Preponderance of synonymous changes as evidence for the neutral theory of molecular evolution , 1977, Nature.

[23]  K. Nakajima,et al.  Influenza surveillance based on oligonculeotide mapping of RNA of H1N1 viruses prevalent in Japan, 1978-1979. , 1980, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[24]  R. Lazzarini,et al.  Structure and origin of a snapback defective interfering particle RNA of vesicular stomatitis virus , 1981, Journal of virology.

[25]  F. Brown,et al.  Moleculas aspects of the antigenic variation of swine vesicular disease and Coxsackie B5 viruses. , 1977, The Journal of general virology.

[26]  B. Semler,et al.  Internal genome deletions in two distinct classes of defective interfering particles of vesicular stomatitis virus. , 1979, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[27]  M. Leppert,et al.  Further characterization of sendai virus DI-RNAs: A model for their generation , 1977, Cell.

[28]  S. Schlesinger,et al.  Defective interfering particles of Sindbis virus do not interfere with the homologous virus obtained from persistently infected BHK cells but do interfere with Semliki Forest virus , 1981, Journal of virology.

[29]  J A Bruenn,et al.  Virus-like particles of yeast. , 1980, Annual review of microbiology.

[30]  I. Chibata,et al.  Application of ion exchangers in organic reactions. III. Application to the rearrangement of hydrazobenzene derivatives. , 1954, Pharmaceutical bulletin.

[31]  B. Fields,et al.  Revertants of temperature-sensitive mutants of reovirus: evidence for frequent extragenic suppression. , 1979, Virology.

[32]  F. Brown,et al.  Antigenic Differences between Isolates of Swine Vesicular Disease Virus and their Relationship to Coxsackie B5 Virus , 1973, Nature.

[33]  J. Holland,et al.  Persistent noncytocidal vesicular stomatitis virus infections mediated by defective T particles that suppress virion transcriptase. , 1974, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[34]  I. Wilson,et al.  Structure of the haemagglutinin membrane glycoprotein of influenza virus at 3 Å resolution , 1981, Nature.

[35]  T. Kunkel,et al.  On the fidelity of DNA replication. The accuracy of Escherichia coli DNA polymerase I in copying natural DNA in vitro. , 1980, The Journal of biological chemistry.

[36]  A. Kawai,et al.  Characterization of rabies viruses recovered from persistently infected BHK cells. , 1975, Virology.

[37]  D. McGeoch,et al.  Comparisons of nucleotide sequences in the genomes of the New Jersey and Indiana serotypes of vesicular stomatitis virus , 1980, Journal of virology.

[38]  A. Kawai,et al.  Interfering and noninterfering defective particles generated by a rabies small plaque variant virus. , 1977, Virology.

[39]  D. Baltimore,et al.  Defective interfering particles of poliovirus. 3. Interference and enrichment. , 1973, Journal of molecular biology.

[40]  A. E. Campbell,et al.  Coxsackievirus B cardiopathy and angiopathy in the hypercholesterolemic host. , 1978, Atherosclerosis.

[41]  J. L. King,et al.  Deleterious Mutations and Neutral Substitutions , 1971, Nature.

[42]  H. Varmus,et al.  Analysis of avian leukosis virus DNA and RNA in bursal tumors: Viral gene expression is not required for maintenance of the tumor state , 1981, Cell.

[43]  T. Kunkel,et al.  Fidelity of mammalian DNA polymerases. , 1981, Science.

[44]  A. Portner,et al.  Properties of incomplete Sendai virions and subgenomic viral RNAs. , 1970, Virology.

[45]  P. Palese,et al.  Sequential passage of influenza virus in embryonated eggs or tissue culture: emergence of mutants. , 1980, Virology.

[46]  J. Holland,et al.  Role of defective interfering particles of Sendai virus in persistent infections. , 1979, Virology.

[47]  D. McGeoch,et al.  Enhanced Mutability Associated with a Temperature-Sensitive Mutant of Vesicular Stomatitis Virus , 1981, Journal of virology.

[48]  V. Agol,et al.  Biochemical evidence for intertypic genetic recombination of polioviruses , 1980, FEBS letters.

[49]  J. Holland,et al.  Long-term persistent vesicular stomatitis virus and rabies virus infection of cells in vitro. , 1976, The Journal of general virology.

[50]  M. Birrer,et al.  Antigenic variants of measles virus , 1981, Nature.

[51]  V. Stollar,et al.  The production of high yields of infectious vesicular stomatitis virus in A. albopictus cells and comparisons with replication in BHK-21 cells. , 1980, Virology.

[52]  P. Choppin.  Replication of influenza virus in a continuous cell line: high yield of infective virus from cells inoculated at high multiplicity. , 1969, Virology.

[53]  T. Waldmann,et al.  Human immunoglobulin κ light-chain genes are deleted or rearranged in λ-producing B cells , 1981, Nature.

[54]  D. Baltimore,et al.  Defective Viral Particles and Viral Disease Processes , 1970, Nature.

[55]  M. E. Reichmann,et al.  A possible effect of viral proteins on the specificity of interference by defective vesicular stomatitis virus particles. , 1977, Virology.

[56]  N. Minato,et al.  Influence of anti-mouse interferon serum on the growth and metastasis of tumor cells persistently infected with virus and of human prostatic tumors in athymic nude mice. , 1981, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[57]  R. Ahmed,et al.  Genetic variation during lytic reovirus infection: high-passage stocks of wild-type reovirus contain temperature-sensitive mutants , 1980, Journal of virology.

[58]  Charles Weissmann,et al.  Nucleotide sequence heterogeneity of an RNA phage population , 1978, Cell.

[59]  J. Youngner,et al.  Generation and amplification of temperature-sensitive mutants during serial undiluted passages of vesicular stomatitis virus. , 1981, Virology.

[60]  J. Holland,et al.  Virus protein changes and RNA termini alterations evolving during persistent infection , 1980, Cell.

[61]  E. Batschelet,et al.  The proportion of revertant and mutant phage in a growing population, as a function of mutation and growth rate. , 1976, Gene.

[62]  V. Stollar,et al.  Defective interfering particles of Sindbis virus. V. Sequence relationships between SVSTD 42 S RNA and intracellular defective viral RNAs. , 1977, Virology.

[63]  R. Lazzarini,et al.  The relationship between autointerference and the replication of defective interfering particle. , 1977, Virology.

[64]  J. Holland,et al.  Persistent vesicular stomatitis virus infection mediates base substitutions in viral RNA termini , 1979, Journal of virology.

[65]  J. Young,et al.  Evolution of human influenza a viruses in nature: Sequential mutations in the genomes of new H1N1 isolates , 1979, Cell.

[66]  A. Herring,et al.  Yeast virus-like particles possess a capsid-associated single-stranded RNA polymerase , 1977, Nature.

[67]  Y. Nishiyama.  Studies of L cells persistently infected with VSV: factors involved in the regulation of persistent infection. , 1977, The Journal of general virology.

[68]  R. Wickner,et al.  The killer double-stranded RNA plasmids of yeast. , 1979, Plasmid.

[69]  K. Browning,et al.  Sequence heterogeneity in satellite tobacco necrosis virus RNA. , 1981, Virology.

[70]  C. Minick,et al.  Atheroarteriosclerosis induced by infection with a herpesvirus. , 1979, The American journal of pathology.

[71]  H. Clark,et al.  Plasticity of phenotypic characters of rabies-related viruses: spontaneous variation in the plaque morphology, virulence, and temperature-sensitivity characters of serially propagated Lagos bat and Mokola viruses. , 1974, The Journal of infectious diseases.

[72]  J. Holland,et al.  Evolution of multiple genome mutations during long-term persistent infection by vesicular stomatitis virus , 1979, Cell.

[73]  S. Emerson,et al.  Dissociation and Reconstitution of the Transcriptase and Template Activities of Vesicular Stomatitis B and T Virions , 1972, Journal of virology.

[74]  E. Benditt.  IMPLICATIONS OF THE MONOCLONAL CHARACTER OF HUMAN ATHEROSCLEROTIC PLAQUES * , 1976, The American journal of pathology.

[75]  R. Webster,et al.  Antigenic variation in three distinct determinants of an influenza type A haemagglutinin molecule , 1979, Nature.

[76]  J. Keene,et al.  The origins of defective interfering particles of the negative-strand RNA viruses , 1981, Cell.

[77]  T. Onodera,et al.  Virus-induced diabetes mellitus: reovirus infection of pancreatic beta cells in mice. , 1978, Science.

[78]  D. Griffin,et al.  Antigenic shift of visna virus in persistently infected sheep. , 1977, Science.

[79]  J. Holland,et al.  Viral genome synthesis in BHK 21 cells persistently infected with Sendai virus. , 1980, Virology.

[80]  R. Pettersson.  5'-Terminal nucleotide sequence of Semliki forest virus 18S defective interfering RNA is heterogeneous and different from the genomic 42S RNA. , 1981, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[81]  J. F. Young,et al.  Evolution of human influenza A viruses in nature: recombination contributes to genetic variation of H1N1 strains. , 1979, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[82]  J. Sever,et al.  Isolation of Measles Virus from Brain Cell Cultures of Two Patients with Subacute Sclerosing Panencephalitis , 1969, Proceedings of the Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine. Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine.

[83]  L. Orgel,et al.  Catalysis of accurate poly(C)-directed synthesis of 3'-5'-linked oligoguanylates by Zn2+. , 1980, Journal of molecular biology.

[84]  W. Fiers,et al.  Nucleotide Sequence of the Gene Coding for the Bacteriophage MS2 Coat Protein , 1972, Nature.

[85]  M. Sandberg‐Wollheim,et al.  Analysis of a predominant immunoglobulin population in the cerebrospinal fluid of a multiple sclerosis patient by means of an anti-idiotypic hybridoma antibody. , 1981, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[86]  A. Granoff.  Studies on mixed infection with Newcastle disease virus. I. Isolation of Newcastle disease virus mutants and tests for genetic recombination between them. , 1959, Virology.

[87]  E. Dubovi,et al.  Role of temperature-sensitive mutants in persistent infections initiated with vesicular stomatitis virus , 1976, Journal of virology.

[88]  A. Haase,et al.  Measles virus nucleotide sequences: detection by hybridization in situ. , 1981, Science.

[89]  M. Nei,et al.  Pseudogenes as a paradigm of neutral evolution , 1981, Nature.

[90]  J. Holland,et al.  Purification of defective interfering T particles of vesicular stomatitis and rabies viruses generated in vivo in brains of newborn mice. , 1975, Virology.

[91]  T. Miyata,et al.  Rapidly evolving mouse alpha-globin-related pseudo gene and its evolutionary history. , 1981, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[92]  O. Kew,et al.  Molecular variation of type 1 vaccine-related and wild polioviruses during replication in humans. , 1981, Virology.

[93]  J. Holland,et al.  Variability of vesicular stomatitis virus autointerference with different host cells and virus serotypes. , 1972, Virology.

[94]  R. Friedman,et al.  Prolonged Infection of Interferon-Treated Cells by Vesicular Stomatitis Virus: Possible Role of Temperature-Sensitive Mutants and Interferon , 1977 .

[95]  A. Granoff,et al.  Induction of Newcastle disease virus mutants with nitrous acid. , 1961, Virology.

[96]  J. Kaper,et al.  CARNA 5, the Small Cucumber Mosaic Virus—Dependent Replicating RNA, Regulates Disease Expression , 1979, Science.

[97]  L. Jacobs,et al.  Intrathecal interferon reduces exacerbations of multiple sclerosis. , 1981, Science.

[98]  H. Koprowski,et al.  Monoclonal antibodies against rabies virus produced by somatic cell hybridization: detection of antigenic variants. , 1978, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[99]  S. Fields,et al.  Nucleotide sequence of the haemagglutinin gene of a human influenza virus H1 subtype , 1981, Nature.

[100]  S. Jacobson,et al.  Viral pathogenesis and resistance to defective interfering particles , 1980, Nature.

[101]  P. Cooper,et al.  Some properties of the transmissible interfering component of vesicular stomatitis virus preparations. , 1959, Journal of general microbiology.

[102]  W. Gerhard,et al.  Production of antibodies against influenza virus by somatic cell hybrids between mouse myeloma and primed spleen cells. , 1977, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[103]  F. Singer,et al.  Nuclear inclusions in Paget's disease of bone. , 1976, Science.

[104]  W. S. Hayward,et al.  Avian leukosis virus-induced tumors have common proviral integration sites and synthesize discrete new RNAs: oncogenesis by promoter insertion , 1981, Cell.

[105]  R. Lazzarini,et al.  RNA synthesis in standard and autointerfered vesicular stomatitis virus infections. , 1977, Virology.

[106]  I. Wilson,et al.  Structural identification of the antibody-binding sites of Hong Kong influenza haemagglutinin and their involvement in antigenic variation , 1981, Nature.

[107]  P. I. Marcus,et al.  Viral interference by defective particles of vesicular stomatitis virus measured in individual cells. , 1980, Virology.

[108]  Roy M. Anderson,et al.  Population dynamics of fox rabies in Europe , 1981, Nature.

[109]  C. Pringle,et al.  A temperature-sensitive mutant of vesicular stomatitis virus with two abnormal virus proteins. , 1974, The Journal of general virology.

[110]  J. Holland,et al.  RNA synthesis in BHK 21 cells persistently infected with vesicular stomatitis virus and rabies virus. , 1976, The Journal of general virology.

[111]  H. Itabashi,et al.  Isolation of measles virus from cell cultures of brain from a patient with subacute sclerosing panencephalitis. , 1969, The New England journal of medicine.

[112]  L. Weiner,et al.  Immunohistological demonstration of respiratory syncytial virus antigens in Paget disease of bone. , 1981, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[113]  E. Domingo,et al.  Genetic variability of Hong Kong (H3N2) influenza viruses: spontaneous mutations and their location in the viral genome. , 1980, Gene.