Effect of exchange rate return on volatility spill-over across trading regions

Parasiten können das Überleben und die Fitness ihrer Wirte auf unterschiedliche Weise beeinflussen. Unter anderem konkurrieren sie mit ihrem Wirt um Ressourcen die sonst in z.B. Wachstum oder Entwicklung des Immunsystems investiert werden könnten. Ressourcenverfügbarkeit, oft von Umweltbedingungen beeinflusst, spielt daher bei der Embryonalund Jugendentwicklung eine wichtige Rolle. In dieser Studie werden die Kosten eines hämatophagen Ektoparasiten Carnus hemapterus (Milichiidae, Diptera) unter unterschiedlichen Umweltbedingungen in Bezug auf Wachstum, Immunantwort und Gesundheit nestjunger Europäischer Bienenfresser (Merops apiaster) untersucht. Dazu wurde die Anzahl dieser blutsaugenden Ektoparasiten nestweise manipuliert (erhöht oder reduziert). Bestimmt wurden die Auswirkungen auf Körperkondition; Immunreaktion (T-Zell und humorale Immunantwort) und zwei potentielle Gesundheitsindikatoren im Blut (Sedimentationsrate und Hämatokrit) von Bienenfressernestlingen. Die Ergebnisse zeigen einen signifikant negativen Effekt von C. hemapterus auf Kondition, Immunantwort und Hämatokrit. Werden Parasiten hingegen aus den Nestern entfernt, erhöhen sich Kondition, γ-Globulin, T-Zell Immunantwort und Hämatokrit. Obwohl eine Reihe von Fitnessindikatoren beeinflusst wurde, gab es während des Experimentes keine Abstract One way that parasites influence host survival and fitness is by competing with their hosts for resources that would otherwise be used for growth and immune system development. Thus resource availability, influenced by environmental conditions, may be particularly important during offspring development. This study examined the influence of a haematophagous ectoparasite Carnus hemapterus (Diptera: Milichiidae) in relation to environmental conditions on the growth, immune response, and health of nestling European Bee-eaters (Merops apiaster). The abundance of this bloodsucking ectoparasite per nest was experimentally manipulated to determine its impact on nestling body condition, immune system function in terms of T-cell-mediated and humoral immune response, and two health parameters, sedimentation rate and haematocrit level. Results indicate a significant negative effect of C. hemapterus intensity on nestling body condition and immune response, and on one blood parameter (haematocrit levels). Nestling body condition, γ-globulin levels, wing web swelling, and haematocrit levels increased when parasites were removed. Although a broad spectrum of fitness indicators seems to be affected, no difference in nestling mortality during the experiment was observed between the two treatment groups. Surprisingly, variations in environmental conditions (weather in particular) that likely affected nestling food availability or

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