Strategies for increased donor electrical activity in germanium (opto-) electronic materials: a review

ABSTRACT Germanium is one of the strongest candidate materials for next generation integrated optoelectronic devices owing to its high carrier mobilities, bandgap at the telecom wavelength of 1.55 μm, and monolithic (CMOS) integration with silicon. However, for device applications requiring very high carrier concentrations, such as solid state lasers and MOSFETs, a persistent technological hurdle is the limited electrically active concentration ∼5×1019 cm−3 observed in n-type material, regardless of the chemical concentration of incorporated donors above this. This is due to the formation of donor-vacancy clusters, which electrically compensate the material and enhance dopant diffusivity. In recent years, multiple strategies have attempted to address this, with some, albeit limited, success. Here we outline some of the more novel approaches and provide a review with particular emphasis on one of the more promising of these: the co-implantation of donors with fluorine, and discuss potential methods for optimizing this process.

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