Training Procedures for Enhancing Reserve Component Learning, Retention, and Transfer

Abstract : This report summarizes the results of an extensive literature survey conducted to provide the U.S. Army National Guard and Reserve, i.e., the Reserve Component (RC), with practicable information on how to train for enhanced soldier performance, General training procedures or strategies are recommended for improving the learning, retention, and transfer of verbal and perceptual motor skills. When incorporated by the military training developer and applied on a task-by-task basis by the RC trainer, these general procedures will help to ensure maximum payoff from the training resources invested. Keywords: Reserve component; Training; Learning; Retention; Transfer; Verbal skills; Perceptual- motor skills.

[1]  Robert L. Greene,et al.  Spacing effects in memory: evidence for a two-process account , 1989 .

[2]  D. C. Shapiro,et al.  Summary knowledge of results for skill acquisition: support for the guidance hypothesis. , 1989, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[3]  Paul W. Foos,et al.  Using Tests as Learning Opportunities. , 1988 .

[4]  Christiaan Hamaker.  The Effects of Adjunct Questions on Prose Learning , 1986 .

[5]  Geoffrey R. Loftus,et al.  Evaluating forgetting curves. , 1985 .

[6]  Richard J. Hamilton.  A Framework for the Evaluation of the Effectiveness of Adjunct Questions and Objectives , 1985 .

[7]  Andrew M. Rose,et al.  Acquisition and Retention of Soldiering Skills , 1985 .

[8]  Noreen M. Webb,et al.  Stability of Small Group Interaction and Achievement Over Time. , 1984 .

[9]  R. Slavin.  When does cooperative learning increase student achievement , 1983 .

[10]  V. K. Kumar,et al.  Test Mode Anticipation and Performance: A Classroom Experiment. , 1983 .

[11]  D C Wightman,et al.  Part-Task Training of Tracking in Manual Control. , 1983 .

[12]  Brian McElree,et al.  Normal forgetting of verbal lists as a function of their degree of learning. , 1983 .

[13]  S. Wilhite.  Prepassage Questions: The Influence of Structural Importance. , 1983 .

[14]  Richard E. Mayer,et al.  Can you repeat that? Qualitative effects of repetition and advance organizers on learning from science prose. , 1983 .

[15]  J. D. Hagman,et al.  On sustaining procedural skills over a prolonged retention interval. , 1982 .

[16]  T. Salthouse,et al.  Skilled performance: Effects of adult age and experience on elementary processes. , 1982 .

[17]  David W. Johnson,et al.  Effects of cooperative, competitive, and individualistic learning on students' achievement in science class , 1982 .

[18]  G. W. Hill.  Group versus individual performance: are n + 1 heads better than one?" psychological bulletin , 1982 .

[19]  Noreen M. Webb,et al.  Peer interaction and learning in cooperative small groups. , 1982 .

[20]  A. D. Fisk,et al.  Degree of consistent training: Improvements in search performance and automatic process development , 1982, Perception & psychophysics.

[21]  Gerald Halpin,et al.  Experimental investigation on the effects of study and testing on student learning, retention, and ratings of instruction. , 1982 .

[22]  Robert E. Slavin,et al.  Cognitive and Affective Outcomes of an Intensive Student Team Learning Experience , 1981 .

[23]  John P. Rickards,et al.  Effect of Level, Review, and Sequence of Inserted Questions on Text Processing. , 1981 .

[24]  F. Bellezza.  Mnemonic Devices: Classification, Characteristics, and Criteria , 1981 .

[25]  A. Glenberg,et al.  Spacing repetitions over 1 week , 1980, Memory & Cognition.

[26]  Matthew R. Kleinman.  Distribution of Practice and Pre-Task Ability in the Acquisition of Three Discrete Gross Motor Skills , 1980 .

[27]  S. Sharan.  Cooperative Learning in Small Groups: Recent Methods and Effects on Achievement, Attitudes, and Ethnic Relations , 1980 .

[28]  Robert E. Slavin,et al.  Effects of Student Teams and Peer Tutoring on Academic Achievement and Time On-Task. , 1980 .

[29]  S. Tyler,et al.  Cognitive Effort and Memory , 1979 .

[30]  John P. Rickards.  Adjunct Postquestions in Text: A Critical Review of Methods and Processes , 1979 .

[31]  R. Mayer.  Can Advance Organizers Influence Meaningful Learning? , 1979 .

[32]  T. Andre.  Does Answering Higher-Level Questions While Reading Facilitate Productive Learning? , 1979 .

[33]  W. S. Husak,et al.  Novel response production as a function of variability and amount of practice. , 1979, Research quarterly.

[34]  Raymond W. Kulhavy,et al.  Feedback and content review in programmed instruction , 1979 .

[35]  Klein Ta,et al.  Evaluation of management training. , 1979 .

[36]  J. Shea,et al.  Contextual interference effects on the acquisition, retention, and transfer of a motor skill. , 1979 .

[37]  Barbara Hayes-Roth,et al.  The use of schemata in the acquisition and transfer of knowledge , 1979, Cognitive Psychology.

[38]  Thomas Andre,et al.  Verbatim and Paraphrased Adjunct Questions and Learning from Prose. , 1978 .

[39]  Francis J. Di Vesta,et al.  Learner Expectations Induced by Adjunct Questions and the Retrieval of Intentional and Incidental Information. , 1978 .

[40]  C. Thompson,et al.  How recall facilitates subsequent recall: A reappraisal. , 1978 .

[41]  J. Kelso,et al.  Motor schema formation in children. , 1978 .

[42]  John B. Shea,et al.  The effects on skill acquisition of an interpolated motor short-term memory task during the kr-delay interval. , 1976, Journal of motor behavior.

[43]  V. L. Allen,et al.  Research on Children Tutoring Children: A Critical Review , 1976 .

[44]  Mark F. Brennan,et al.  Utilization of Peer Instruction in Air Force Technical Training. , 1976 .

[45]  A. D. Yarmey,et al.  Bizarre Imagery and Associative Learning: A Confirmation , 1976 .

[46]  J. Gardiner,et al.  Memory for Remembered Events: Contrasting Recall and Recognition. , 1976 .

[47]  J. Hartley,et al.  Preinstructional Strategies: The Role of Pretests, Behavioral Objectives, Overviews and Advance Organizers , 1976 .

[48]  Raghu Nath,et al.  Role of Performance Goals in Prose Learning. , 1976 .

[49]  William A. Johnston,et al.  The contributions of encoding effort and variability to the spacing effect on free recall. , 1976 .

[50]  N. Kroll,et al.  Visual imagery mnemonics: Common vs. bizarre mental images , 1976 .

[51]  Robert R. Hoffman,et al.  Bizarreness as a nonessential variable in mnemonic imagery: A confirmation , 1976 .

[52]  Diane L. Schallert,et al.  Improving Memory for Prose: The Relationship between Depth of Processing and Context. Technical Report No. 5. , 1975 .

[53]  Daniel Gopher,et al.  The Effects of Visual and Proprioceptive Feedback on Motor Learning , 1975 .

[54]  R. Schmidt.  A schema theory of discrete motor skill learning. , 1975 .

[55]  Robert Vineberg,et al.  A Study of the Retention of Skills and Knowledge Acquired in Basic Training , 1975 .

[56]  Donald J. Cunningham,et al.  A Comparison of Pictorial and Written Adjunct Aids in Learning from Text. , 1975 .

[57]  Richard C. Anderson,et al.  Delay-retention effect in natural classroom settings. , 1975 .

[58]  H. Ellis,et al.  Coding strategies, perceptual grouping, and the “variability effect” in free recall , 1975, Memory & cognition.

[59]  R. Atkinson,et al.  An Application of the Mnemonic Keyword Method to the Acquisition of a Russian Vocabulary. Psychology and Education Series, Technical Report No. 237. , 1974 .

[60]  Henry C. Ellis,et al.  Transfer of Coding Strategies in Free Recall with Constant and Varied Input. , 1974 .

[61]  James Hartley,et al.  A selected bibliography of typographical research relevant to the production of instructional materials , 1974 .

[62]  Harry Lorayne,et al.  The Memory Book , 1974 .

[63]  C. Rogers,et al.  Feedback precision and postfeedback interval duration. , 1974, Journal of experimental psychology.

[64]  H. Ellis,et al.  Coding and varied input versus repetition in human memory , 1974 .

[65]  G E Stelmach,et al.  Retention of Motor Skills , 1974, Exercise and sport sciences reviews.

[66]  B. Kerr,et al.  Processing demands during mental operations , 1973, Memory & cognition.

[67]  Barbara Tversky,et al.  Encoding processes in recognition and recall , 1973 .

[68]  R. Schmidt,et al.  Further tests of adams' closed-loop theory. , 1973, Journal of motor behavior.

[69]  F. Danner,et al.  Integrated Pictures and Relational Imagery Training in Children's Learning. , 1973 .

[70]  F. Craik,et al.  Levels of processing: A framework for memory research , 1972 .

[71]  R. Schmidt,et al.  Evidence for an error detection mechanism in motor skills. , 1972, Journal of motor behavior.

[72]  G. Bower,et al.  Mnemonic elaboration in multilist learning , 1972 .

[73]  Keith J. Edwards,et al.  Games and Teams , 1972 .

[74]  E. Thorndike.  The fundamentals of learning , 1972 .

[75]  H. Roediger,et al.  Positive and negative part/whole transfer in free recall , 1972 .

[76]  E. Rawlings,et al.  The facilitating effects of mental rehearsal in the acquisition of rotary pursuit tracking , 1972 .

[77]  G. Loftus.  COMPARISON OF RECOGNITION AND RECALL IN A CONTINUOUS MEMORY TASK , 1971 .

[78]  J. Adams,et al.  A closed-loop theory of motor learning. , 1971, Journal of motor behavior.

[79]  E. Lemke,et al.  Group variables influencing the transfer of conceptual behavior. , 1971 .

[80]  R. Bjork,et al.  The spacing effect: Consolidation or differential encoding? , 1970 .

[81]  Rohwer,et al.  Images and pictures in children's learning: Research results and educational implications. , 1970 .

[82]  C. Izawa,et al.  Optimal Potentiating Effects and Forgetting-Prevention Effects of Tests in Paired-Associate Learning. , 1970 .

[83]  G. Bower,et al.  Comparison of associative learning strategies , 1970 .

[84]  G. A. Allen,et al.  Effects of recall tests on long-term retention of paired associates , 1969 .

[85]  Samuel A. Bobrow,et al.  COMPREHENSION AND RECALL OF SENTENCES , 1969 .

[86]  P. R. Laughlin,et al.  Individual Versus Triadic Performance on a Unidimensional Complementary Task as a Function of Initial Ability Level. , 1969 .

[87]  J. Novak,et al.  Educational Psychology: A Cognitive View , 1969 .

[88]  J. Adams.  Response feedback and learning. , 1968 .

[89]  L. T. Frase.  Some unpredicted effects of different questions upon learning from connected discourse. , 1968, Journal of educational psychology.

[90]  P. R. Laughlin,et al.  Concept identification as a function of sensory modality, information, and number of persons. , 1968, Journal of experimental psychology.

[91]  Douglas D. Sjogren,et al.  Effects of Differentially Structured Introductory Materials and Learning Tasks on Learning and Transfer1 , 1968 .

[92]  R. Stebbins.  A Note on the Concept of Role Distance , 1967, American Journal of Sociology.

[93]  A. Richardson.  Mental Practice: A Review and Discussion Part I , 1967 .

[94]  J. Guthrie,et al.  Expository instruction versus a discovery method. , 1967, Journal of educational psychology.

[95]  L. T. Frase,et al.  Learning from prose material: length of passage, knowledge of results, and position of questions. , 1967, Journal of educational psychology.

[96]  Lawrence M. Stolurow,et al.  Hierarchical Preview VS Problem Oriented Review in Learning an Imaginary Science1 , 1966 .

[97]  A W Macrae,et al.  Rate and force of guidance in perceptual-motor tasks with reversed or random spatial correspondence. , 1966, Ergonomics.

[98]  I. Steiner.  Models for inferring relationships between group size and potential group productivity. , 1966, Behavioral science.

[99]  E. Tulving.  Subjective organization and effects of repetition in multi-trial free-recall learning , 1966 .

[100]  J. A. Adams,et al.  Short-term memory for motor responses. , 1966, Journal of experimental psychology.

[101]  A W Macrae,et al.  Guided practice in direct and reversed serial tracking. , 1965, Ergonomics.

[102]  E. Martin.  Transfer of verbal paired associates. , 1965, Psychological review.

[103]  B. Underwood.  Degree of learning and the measurement of forgetting. , 1964 .

[104]  A. W. Melton.  Implications of short-term memory for a general theory of memory , 1963 .

[105]  D. Holding,et al.  Transfer between difficult and easy tasks. , 1962, British journal of psychology.

[106]  E. Tulving.  Subjective organization in free recall of "unrelated" words. , 1962, Psychological review.

[107]  Bert Y. Kersh.  The motivating effect of learning by directed discovery. , 1962 .

[108]  L. V. Clark.  Effect of Mental Practice on the Development of a Certain Motor Skill , 1960 .

[109]  D. Ausubel.  The use of advance organizers in the learning and retention of meaningful verbal material. , 1960 .

[110]  G. Miller,et al.  Plans and the structure of behavior , 1960 .

[111]  C I HOVLAND,et al.  A comparison of three varieties of training in human problem solving. , 1959, Journal of experimental psychology.

[112]  Robert B. Ammons,et al.  Long-term retention of perceptual-motor skills. , 1958 .

[113]  R. Ammons.  Effects of Knowledge of Performance: A Survey and Tentative Theoretical Formulation , 1956 .

[114]  Day Rh,et al.  Relative task difficulty and transfer of training in skilled performance. , 1956 .

[115]  F. J. McGuigan,et al.  Whole and part methods in learning a perceptual motor skill. , 1955, The American journal of psychology.

[116]  D. Lewis,et al.  Facilitation and interference in performance on the modified Mashburn apparatus: I. The effects of varying the amount of original learning. , 1951, Journal of experimental psychology.

[117]  W. Twining.  Mental practice and physical practice in learning a motor skill. , 1949, Research quarterly.

[118]  M. Bunch,et al.  The amount of transfer in rational learning as a function of time. , 1936 .

[119]  M. H. Trowbridge,et al.  An Experimental Study of Thorndike's Theory of Learning , 1932 .

[120]  F. Bartlett,et al.  Remembering: A Study in Experimental and Social Psychology , 1932 .

[121]  E. Thorndike.  The law of effect. , 1927 .

[122]  E. Custers,et al.  Psychology of Learning. , 1921 .

[123]  Gloria E. Miller,et al.  in the Classroom: How To Remember the States and Their Capitals , 2016 .

[124]  M. McDaniel,et al.  Bizarre imagery, interference, and distinctiveness. , 1989, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[125]  Philip H. Winne,et al.  The Effects of Different Types of Organizers on Students' Learning from Text. , 1989 .

[126]  Keith J. Holyoak,et al.  The cognitive basis of knowledge transfer. , 1987 .

[127]  John A. Boldovici,et al.  Measuring Transfer in Military Settings , 1987 .

[128]  Donald F. Dansereau,et al.  Transfer of Information: An Instructional Perspective , 1987 .

[129]  J. Adams.  Historical review and appraisal of research on the learning, retention, and transfer of human motor skills. , 1987 .

[130]  John B. Shea,et al.  Context Effects in Memory and Learning Movement Information , 1983 .

[131]  Matthew R. Kleinman.  The acquisition of motor skill , 1983 .

[132]  D. G. Payne,et al.  Hypermnesia: the role of repeated testing. , 1982, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[133]  Robert E. Slavin,et al.  Cooperative learning in teams: State of the art , 1980 .

[134]  R. Singer.  Motor learning and human performance : an application to motor skills and movement behaviors , 1980 .

[135]  W. D. Rohwer,et al.  Educational Psychology, Teaching for Student Diversity , 1980 .

[136]  K. Williams,et al.  Many Hands Make Light the Work: The Causes and Consequences of Social Loafing , 1979 .

[137]  G. Lefrançois.  Psychology for teaching , 1979 .

[138]  Moxley Se,et al.  Schema: The Variability of Practice Hypothesis , 1979 .

[139]  P. Sturges.  Delay of Informative Feedback in Computer-Assisted Testing. , 1978 .

[140]  J. L. Santa,et al.  Consequences of rigid and flexible learning , 1977 .

[141]  S. Henderson,et al.  Role of feedback in the development and maintenance of complex skill. , 1977, Journal of experimental psychology. Human perception and performance.

[142]  R. Travers,et al.  Essentials of learning , 1977 .

[143]  J. Adams.  Issues for a Closed-Loop Theory of Motor Learning , 1976 .

[144]  Richard C. Anderson,et al.  On asking people questions about what they are reading , 1975 .

[145]  G. Stelmach,et al.  Memory trace strength and response biasing in short-term motor memory , 1975, Memory & cognition.

[146]  Daniel B. Felker,et al.  Effects of Question Type and Question Placement on Problem-Solving Ability from Prose Material. , 1975 .

[147]  D. Ausubel.  Readings in school learning , 1969 .

[148]  Richard C. Atkinson,et al.  Human Memory: A Proposed System and its Control Processes , 1968, Psychology of Learning and Motivation.

[149]  Edward A. Bilodeau,et al.  Acquisition of Skill , 1967 .

[150]  B. Cratty.  Movement behavior and motor learning , 1967 .

[151]  William Douglas Seymour,et al.  Industrial Training for Manual Operations , 1966 .

[152]  D. H. Holding,et al.  Principles of Training , 1965 .

[153]  R. Gagne.  Conditions of Learning , 1965 .

[154]  G. Mandler.  From association to structure. , 1962, Psychological review.

[155]  A. Bilodeau,et al.  Motor-Skills Learning , 1961 .

[156]  A. A. Lumsdaine,et al.  Learning from films , 1958 .

[157]  C. P. Duncan.  Transfer after training with single versus multiple tasks. , 1958, Journal of experimental psychology.

[158]  B. J. Fine,et al.  Stimulus familiarization as a factor in ideational learning. , 1956 .

[159]  H. Harlow,et al.  The formation of learning sets. , 1949, Psychological review.

[160]  M. E. Bunch,et al.  The amount of transfer of training from partial learning after varying intervals of time. , 1939 .

[161]  K. S. Yum,et al.  An experimental test of the law of assimilation. , 1931 .

[162]  D. Hill.  Minor studies in learning and relearning. , 1914 .