Artificial Intelligence

This paper is a survey of Artifici'al Intelligence (AI). It divides the field into four cor~ topics (embodying the base fo·r a science of intelligence) and eight applications topics (in which research has been contributing to core ideas).. The paper discusses the history, the major landmarks, and some of the controversies in each of these twelve topics. Each topic is represented by a chart citing the major references. These references are contained in an extensive bibliography. The paper concludes with a discussion of some of the criticisms of 'AI and with some predictions about the course of future research.

[1]  Frederick B. Thompson,et al.  English for the Computer , 1899 .

[2]  William Rowan,et al.  The Study of Instinct , 1953 .

[3]  H. Evans The Study of Instinct , 1952 .

[4]  Noam Chomsky,et al.  Three models for the description of language , 1956, IRE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[5]  W. N. Locke,et al.  Machine Translation of Languages: Fourteen Essays , 1955 .

[6]  J. C. Shaw,et al.  Programming the logic theory machine , 1899, IRE-AIEE-ACM '57 (Western).

[7]  Allen Newell,et al.  Chess-Playing Programs and the Problem of Complexity , 1958, IBM J. Res. Dev..

[8]  H. Gelernter,et al.  Realization of a geometry theorem proving machine , 1995, IFIP Congress.

[9]  George Sperling,et al.  The information available in brief visual presentations. , 1960 .

[10]  John McCarthy,et al.  Programs with common sense , 1960 .

[11]  D. Loveland,et al.  Empirical explorations of the geometry theorem machine , 1960, IRE-AIEE-ACM '60 (Western).

[12]  E. A. Feigenbaum,et al.  The simulation of verbal learning behavior , 1899, IRE-AIEE-ACM '61 (Western).

[13]  Earl B. Hunt,et al.  Programming a model of human concept formulation , 1899, IRE-AIEE-ACM '61 (Western).

[14]  Marvin Minsky,et al.  Steps toward Artificial Intelligence , 1995, Proceedings of the IRE.

[15]  Fred McLanahan Tonge,et al.  A heuristic program for assembly line balancing , 1961 .

[16]  John McCarthy,et al.  Computer programs for checking mathematical proofs , 1962 .

[17]  John McCarthy,et al.  Towards a Mathematical Science of Computation , 1962, IFIP Congress.

[18]  Edward A. Feigenbaum,et al.  Artificial intelligence research , 1963, IEEE Trans. Inf. Theory.

[19]  E. Feigenbaum,et al.  Computers and Thought , 1963 .

[20]  J. McCarthy Situations, Actions, and Causal Laws , 1963 .

[21]  Elwyn R. Berlekamp,et al.  Program for Double-Dummy Bridge Problems—A New Strategy for Mechanical Game Playing , 1963, JACM.

[22]  James R. Slagle,et al.  A Heuristic Program that Solves Symbolic Integration Problems in Freshman Calculus , 1963, JACM.

[23]  Herbert A. Simon,et al.  Experiments with a Heuristic Compiler , 1963, JACM.

[24]  B. Raphael SIR: A COMPUTER PROGRAM FOR SEMANTIC INFORMATION RETRIEVAL , 1964 .

[25]  Robert F. Simmons,et al.  Indexing and dependency logic for answering english questions , 1964 .

[26]  Daniel G. Bobrow,et al.  Natural Language Input for a Computer Problem Solving System , 1964 .

[27]  Richard Russell Kalah - The Game and the Program, , 1964 .

[28]  H. Simon,et al.  An information-processing theory of some effects of similarity, familiarization, and meaningfulness in verbal learning , 1964 .

[29]  Larry Wos,et al.  Efficiency and Completeness of the Set of Support Strategy in Theorem Proving , 1965, JACM.

[30]  Robert F. Simmons,et al.  Answering English questions by computer: a survey , 1965, CACM.

[31]  Stanley Roy Petrick,et al.  A recognition procedure for transformational grammars. , 1965 .

[32]  A. Newell,et al.  Information processing language-V manual , 1965 .

[33]  James R. Slagle,et al.  Experiments with a deductive question-answering program , 1965, CACM.

[34]  J. A. Robinson,et al.  A Machine-Oriented Logic Based on the Resolution Principle , 1965, JACM.

[35]  Marvin Minsky,et al.  Matter, Mind and Models , 1965 .

[36]  S. Sternberg High-Speed Scanning in Human Memory , 1966, Science.

[37]  L. M. Norton ADEPT. A HEURISTIC PROGRAM FOR PROVING THEOREMS OF GROUP THEORY , 1966 .

[38]  William S. Gere Heuristics in Job Shop Scheduling , 1966 .

[39]  Joseph Weizenbaum,et al.  ELIZA—a computer program for the study of natural language communication between man and machine , 1966, CACM.

[40]  R. J. Solomonoff,et al.  Some recent work in artificial intelligence , 1966 .

[41]  John McCarthy,et al.  Correctness of a compiler for arithmetic expressions , 1966 .

[42]  Helen Rosina Heise Some necessary conditions of the self , 1966 .

[43]  L Friedman,et al.  Instinctive behavior and its computer synthesis. , 1967, Behavioral science.

[44]  J. D. Wiest,et al.  A Heuristic Model for Scheduling Large Projects with Limited Resources , 1967 .

[45]  W. A. Martin,et al.  Symbolic mathematical laboratory , 1967 .

[46]  D. Reddy Computer recognition of connected speech. , 1967, The Journal of the Acoustical Society of America.

[47]  A. L. Samuel,et al.  Some studies in machine learning using the game of checkers. II: recent progress , 1967 .

[48]  James R. Slagle,et al.  Automatic Theorem Proving With Renamable and Semantic Resolution , 1967, JACM.

[49]  Clark Weissman,et al.  LISP 1.5 primer , 1967 .

[50]  A. C. Hearn,et al.  REDUCE: a user-oriented interactive system for algebraic simplification , 1967, Symposium on Interactive Systems for Experimental Applied Mathematics.

[51]  Allen Newell,et al.  STUDIES IN PROBLEM SOLVING: SUBJECT 3 ON THE CRYPT-ARITHMETIC TASK DONALD + GERALD = ROBERT, , 1967 .

[52]  Karl K. Pingle,et al.  Computer control of a mechanical arm through visual input , 1968, IFIP Congress.

[53]  L. N. Gross,et al.  On-line computer aids for research in linguistics , 1968, IFIP Congress.

[54]  Bertram Raphael,et al.  Programming a robot , 1968, IFIP Congress.

[55]  Marvin Minsky,et al.  Semantic Information Processing , 1968 .

[56]  Edward A. Feigenbaum,et al.  Artificial intelligence: themes in the second decade , 1968, IFIP Congress.

[57]  Nils J. Nilsson,et al.  Searching problem-solving and game-playing trees for minimal cost solutions , 1968, IFIP Congress.

[58]  Douglas L. Hintzman,et al.  Explorations with a discrimination net model for paired-associate learning , 1968 .

[59]  Bruce G. Buchanan,et al.  Heuristic DENDRAL - A program for generating explanatory hypotheses in organic chemistry. , 1968 .

[60]  S. Papert The Artificial Intelligence of Hubert L. Dreyfus; A Budget of Fallacies , 1968 .

[61]  Adolfo Guzmán-Arenas,et al.  COMPUTER RECOGNITION OF THREE-DIMENSIONAL OBJECTS IN A VISUAL SCENE , 1968 .

[62]  Raj Reddy,et al.  A computer with hands, eyes, and ears , 1899, AFIPS Fall Joint Computing Conference.

[63]  Bertram Raphael,et al.  The use of theorem-proving techniques in question-answering systems , 1968, ACM National Conference.

[64]  Adolfo Guzman,et al.  Decomposition of a visual scene into three-dimensional bodies , 1968 .

[65]  Peter B. Andrews Resolution With Merging , 1968, JACM.

[66]  C. Cordell Green,et al.  Application of Theorem Proving to Problem Solving , 1969, IJCAI.

[67]  ZOHAR MANNA,et al.  The Correctness of Programs , 1969, J. Comput. Syst. Sci..

[68]  Richard C. T. Lee,et al.  PROW: A Step Toward Automatic Program Writing , 1969, IJCAI.

[69]  James R. Slagle,et al.  Experiments With Some Programs That Search Game Trees , 1969, JACM.

[70]  Warren Teitelman,et al.  Toward a Programming Laboratory , 1969, IJCAI.

[71]  Albert L. Zobrist,et al.  A model of visual organization for the game of GO , 1899, AFIPS '69 (Spring).

[72]  Victor Scheinman,et al.  Design of a computer controlled manipulator , 1969 .

[73]  F. B. Thompson,et al.  REL: A Rapidly Extensible Language system , 1969, ACM '69.

[74]  William A. Woods,et al.  Computational Linguistics Transition Network Grammars for Natural Language Analysis , 2022 .

[75]  Peter E. Hart,et al.  Experiments in Scene Analysis , 1970 .

[76]  Berthold K. P. Horn SHAPE FROM SHADING: A METHOD FOR OBTAINING THE SHAPE OF A SMOOTH OPAQUE OBJECT FROM ONE VIEW , 1970 .

[77]  R. Gregory The intelligent eye , 1970 .

[78]  M. Kramer Concept formation. , 1970, Nursing Research Conference.

[79]  Robert F. Simmons,et al.  Computational Linguistics Natural Language Question- Answering Systems: 1969 , 2022 .

[80]  Patrick Henry Winston,et al.  Learning structural descriptions from examples , 1970 .

[81]  Richard Fikes,et al.  REF-ARF: A System for Solving Problems Stated as Procedures , 1970, Artif. Intell..

[82]  D. Loveland A Linear Format for Resolution , 1970 .

[83]  R. B. Banerji,et al.  Theoretical Approaches to Non-Numerical Problem Solving , 1970 .

[84]  Ira Pohl,et al.  Heuristic Search Viewed as Path Finding in a Graph , 1970, Artif. Intell..

[85]  Michael David Kelly,et al.  Visual identification of people by computer , 1970 .

[86]  Shen Lin,et al.  Heuristic Techniques for Solving Large Combinatorial Problems on a Computer , 1970 .

[87]  Roger C. Schank SPINOZA II: CONCEPTUAL CASE-BASED NATURAL LANGUAGE ANALYSIS, , 1970 .

[88]  Donald A. Waterman,et al.  Generalization Learning Techniques for Automating the Learning of Heuristics , 1970, Artif. Intell..

[89]  D. Luckham Refinement Theorems in Resolution Theory , 1970 .

[90]  Joshua Lederberg,et al.  The Heuristic DENDRAL Program for Explaining Empirical Data , 1971, IFIP Congress.

[91]  Terry Winograd,et al.  Procedures As A Representation For Data In A Computer Program For Understanding Natural Language , 1971 .

[92]  Richard J. Waldinger,et al.  A Language for Writing Problem-Solving Programs , 1971, IFIP Congress.

[93]  Erik Sandewall,et al.  Formal Methods in the Design of Question-Answering Systems , 1971, Artif. Intell..

[94]  George W. Ernst The Utility of Independent Subgoals in Theorem Proving , 1971, Inf. Control..

[95]  P. Hayes The frame problem and related problems in artificial intelligence , 1971 .

[96]  L. D. Harmon,et al.  Identification of human faces , 1971 .

[97]  Charles E. Eastman,et al.  GSP: A system for computer assisted space planning , 1971, DAC '71.

[98]  W. W. Bledsoe,et al.  Splitting and Reduction Heuristics in Automatic Theorem Proving , 1971, Artif. Intell..

[99]  Rob Kling,et al.  A Paradigm for Reasoning by Analogy , 1971, IJCAI.

[100]  Joel Moses,et al.  Algebraic simplification: a guide for the perplexed , 1971, CACM.

[101]  W. A. Martin,et al.  The MACSYMA system , 1971, SYMSAC '71.

[102]  Anthony C. Hearn,et al.  REDUCE 2: A system and language for algebraic manipulation , 1971, SYMSAC '71.

[103]  James R. Slagle Artificial intelligence : the heuristic programming approach , 1971 .

[104]  Ronald M. Kaplan,et al.  Augmented Transition Networks as Psychological Models of Sentence Comprehension , 1971, IJCAI.

[105]  Allen Newell,et al.  Protocol Analysis as a Task for Artificial Intelligence , 1971, IJCAI.

[106]  R. Kowalski,et al.  Linear Resolution with Selection Function , 1971 .

[107]  R. D. Jenks,et al.  SCRATCHPAD/1: An interactive facility for symbolic mathematics , 1971, SYMSAC '71.

[108]  M. B. Clowes,et al.  On Seeing Things , 1971, Artif. Intell..

[109]  Carl Hewitt,et al.  Procedural Embedding of knowledge in Planner , 1971, IJCAI.

[110]  R. W. Haessler A Heuristic Programming Solution to a Nonlinear Cutting Stock Problem , 1971 .

[111]  Natesa Sastri Sridharan An application of artificial intelligence to organic chemical synthesis , 1971 .

[112]  Nils J. Nilsson,et al.  Problem-solving methods in artificial intelligence , 1971, McGraw-Hill computer science series.

[113]  Jonathan Leonard Ryder,et al.  Heuristic analysis of large trees as generated in the game of Go , 1971 .

[114]  George W. Ernst,et al.  GPS : a case study in generality and problem solving , 1971 .

[115]  Richard Fikes,et al.  STRIPS: A New Approach to the Application of Theorem Proving to Problem Solving , 1971, IJCAI.

[116]  David C. Luckham,et al.  Extracting Information from Resolution Proof Trees , 1971, Artif. Intell..

[117]  Zohar Manna,et al.  Towards automatic program synthesis , 1971, Symposium on Semantics of Algorithmic Languages.

[118]  Nils J. Nilsson,et al.  Some New Directions in Robot Problem Solving , 1972 .

[119]  Gilbert Falk,et al.  Interpretation of Imperfect Line Data as a Three-Dimensional Scene , 1970, Artif. Intell..

[120]  T. Roszak,et al.  Where the Wasteland Ends: Politics and Transcendence in Postindustrial Society , 1973 .

[121]  James J. Gillogly,et al.  The Technology Chess Program , 1972, Artif. Intell..

[122]  T. Pietrzykowski,et al.  A complete mechanization of (ω) -order type theory , 1972, ACM Annual Conference.

[123]  Carl Hewitt,et al.  Description and Theoretical Analysis (Using Schemata) of Planner: A Language for Proving Theorems and Manipulating Models in a Robot , 1972 .

[124]  Roger C. Schank,et al.  Conceptual dependency: A theory of natural language understanding , 1972 .

[125]  Richard Fikes,et al.  Learning and Executing Generalized Robot Plans , 1993, Artif. Intell..

[126]  Drew McDermott,et al.  From PLANNER to CONNIVER: a genetic approach , 1972, AFIPS '72 (Fall, part II).

[127]  Donald A. Norman,et al.  A process model for long-term memory. , 1972 .

[128]  Eugene Charniak,et al.  Toward a model of children's story comprehension , 1972 .

[129]  P. H. Lindsay,et al.  Human Information Processing: An Introduction to Psychology , 1972 .

[130]  Richard Paul Collins Paul,et al.  Modelling, trajectory calculation and servoing of a computer controlled arm , 1972 .

[131]  Gerald Jay Sussman,et al.  The Conniver Reference Manual , 1972 .

[132]  Ralph L. London,et al.  The current state of proving programs correct , 1972, ACM Annual Conference.

[133]  Bertram C. Bruce A Model for Temporal References and Its Application in a Question Answering Program , 1972, Artif. Intell..

[134]  Charles A. Rosen,et al.  Robots, productivity and quality , 1972, ACM Annual Conference.

[135]  白井 良明 A heterarchical program for recognition of polyhedra , 1972 .

[136]  David L. Waltz,et al.  Generating Semantic Descriptions From Drawings of Scenes With Shadows , 1972 .

[137]  Warren Teitelman Automated programmering: the programmer's assistant , 1972, AFIPS '72 (Fall, part II).

[138]  Richard J. Waldinger,et al.  QA4: A Procedural Calculus for Intuitive Reasoning. , 1972 .

[139]  Ben Wegbreit,et al.  Heuristic Methods for Mechanically Deriving Inductive Assertions , 1973, IJCAI.

[140]  Gérard P. Huet,et al.  A Mechanization of Type Theory , 1973, IJCAI.

[141]  Roger C. Schank,et al.  The fourteen primitive actions and their inferences. , 1973 .

[142]  T. Sakai,et al.  Computer analysis and classification of photographs of human faces , 1973 .

[143]  Donald E. Walker,et al.  Speech Understanding, Computational Linguistics, and Artificial Intelligence , 1973, COLING.

[144]  Allen Newell,et al.  How can Merlin understand , 1973 .

[145]  Gerald J. Sussman,et al.  A Computational Model of Skill Acquisition , 1973 .

[146]  Oscar Firschein,et al.  Forecasting and Assessing the Impact of Artificial Intelligence on Society , 1973, IJCAI.

[147]  S. R. Petrick,et al.  Semantic Interpretation in the REQUEST System , 1973, COLING.

[148]  John Makhoul,et al.  Mechanical Inference Problems in Continuous Speech Understanding , 1973, IJCAI.

[149]  Martin A. Fischler,et al.  The Representation and Matching of Pictorial Structures , 1973, IEEE Transactions on Computers.

[150]  Gunnar Rutger Grape Model based (intermediate-level) computer-vision , 1973 .

[151]  Warren J. Plath Transformational Grammar and Transformational Parsing in the REQUEST System , 1973, COLING.

[152]  Gary G. Hendrix,et al.  Modeling Simultaneous Actions and Continuous Processes , 1989, Artif. Intell..

[153]  Yoshiaki Shirai,et al.  A Context Sensitive Line Finder for Recognition of Polyhedra , 1973, Artif. Intell..

[154]  Carl Hewitt,et al.  A Universal Modular ACTOR Formalism for Artificial Intelligence , 1973, IJCAI.

[155]  Earl D. Sacerdott Planning in a hierarchy of abstraction spaces , 1973, IJCAI 1973.

[156]  An Experimental Parsing System for Transition Network Grammars , 1973 .

[157]  Alan Bundy Doing Arithmetic with Diagrams , 1973, IJCAI.

[158]  Kenneth Mark Colby,et al.  Idiolectic Language-Analysis for Understanding Doctor-Patient Dialogues , 1973, IJCAI.

[159]  S. Fuller,et al.  Analysis of the alpha-beta pruning algorithm , 1973 .

[160]  Karl N. Levitt,et al.  Reasoning about programs , 1973, POPL '73.

[161]  Berthold K. P. Horn The Binford-Horn LINE-FINDER , 1973 .

[162]  Jay M. Tenenbaum On locating objects by their distinguishing features in multisensory images , 1973, Comput. Graph. Image Process..

[163]  Gary G. Hendrix,et al.  Language Processing Via Canonical Verbs and Semantic Models , 1973, IJCAI.

[164]  Roger C. Schank,et al.  MARGIE: Memory Analysis Response Generation, and Inference on English , 1973, IJCAI.

[165]  N. S. Sridharan Search Strategies for the Task of Organic Chemical Synthesis , 1973, IJCAI.

[166]  Philip C. Jackson Introduction to Artificial Intelligence , 1985 .

[167]  Scott E. Fahlman,et al.  A Planning System for Robot Construction Tasks , 1973, Artif. Intell..

[168]  Warren Teitelman,et al.  The interlisp reference manual , 1974 .

[169]  A. J. Nevins,et al.  A Human Oriented Logic for Automatic Theorem-Proving , 1974, JACM.

[170]  Marvin Minsky,et al.  A framework for representing knowledge , 1974 .

[171]  Raj Reddy,et al.  The HEARSAY Speech Understanding System , 1974 .

[172]  Allen Newell,et al.  PAS-II: An Interactive Task-Free Version of an Automatic Protocol Analysis System , 1973, IEEE Transactions on Computers.

[173]  F. R. Two Semantic Networks : Their Computation and Use for Understanding English Sentences , 2022 .

[174]  L. Wos,et al.  The unit preference strategy in theorem proving , 1899, AFIPS '64 (Fall, part I).