Integrity of membrane elements, vessels and systems☆

Membrane filtration may be a powerful tool in disinfection of surface water for drinking water production. Especially ultra-, nano- and hyperfiltration are in principle absolute barriers. However, due to imperfections in module construction and/or damage during operation, leakages may occur. Methods are presented that are suitable for checking and monitoring membrane integrity. For combined systems a detailed monitoring protocol has to be worked out.