Antibiofilm Strategies in the Food Industry

Biofilms in food processing plants represent not only a problem to human health but also cause economic losses by technical failure in several systems. In fact, many foodborne outbreaks have been found to be associated with biofilms. Biofilms may be prevented by regular cleaning and disinfection, but this does not completely prevent biofilm formation. Besides, due to their diversity and to the development of specialized phenotypes, it is well known that biofilms are more resistant to cleaning and disinfection than planktonic microorganisms. In recent years, a considerable effort has been made in the prevention of microbial adhesion and biofilm formation on food processing surfaces and novel technologies have been introduced. In this context, this chapter discusses the main conventional and emergent strategies that have been employed to prevent bacterial adhesion to food processing surfaces and thus to efficiently maintain good hygiene throughout the food industries.

[1]  S. E. Martin,et al.  Formation of biofilms by Listeria monocytogenes under various growth conditions. , 2005, Journal of food protection.

[2]  J. Karns,et al.  Biofilm in milking equipment on a dairy farm as a potential source of bulk tank milk contamination with Listeria monocytogenes. , 2010, Journal of dairy science.

[3]  R B Tompkin,et al.  Control of Listeria monocytogenes in the food-processing environment. , 2002, Journal of food protection.

[4]  E. Somers,et al.  Efficacy of two cleaning and sanitizing combinations on Listeria monocytogenes biofilms formed at low temperature on a variety of materials in the presence of ready-to-eat meat residue. , 2004, Journal of food protection.

[5]  Hao Feng,et al.  Removal of Listeria monocytogenes biofilms from stainless steel by use of ultrasound and ozone. , 2009, Journal of food protection.

[6]  M. Griffiths,et al.  Infection and removal of L-forms of Listeria monocytogenes with bred bacteriophage. , 1997, International journal of food microbiology.

[7]  G. Wirtanen,et al.  Epifluorescence Image Analysis and Cultivation of Foodborne Biofilm Bacteria Grown on Stainless Steel Surfaces. , 1993, Journal of food protection.

[8]  Farid Chemat,et al.  Applications of ultrasound in food technology: Processing, preservation and extraction. , 2011, Ultrasonics sonochemistry.

[9]  I. Banat,et al.  Microbial biosurfactants production, applications and future potential , 2010, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[10]  Qi Zhao,et al.  Modification of stainless steel surfaces by electroless Ni-P and small amount of PTFE to minimize bacterial adhesion , 2006 .

[11]  Efsa Journal,et al.  European Food Safety Authority, European Centre for Disease Prevention and Control; The European Union Summary Report on Trends and Sources of Zoonoses, Zoonotic Agents and Food-borne Outbreaks in 2009 , 2011 .

[12]  Phillip T. Robbins,et al.  Fouling and Cleaning Studies in the Food and Beverage Industry Classified by Cleaning Type , 2013 .

[13]  G. Wirtanen,et al.  Effect of the growth phase of foodborne biofilms on their resistance to a chlorine sanitizer. II , 1992 .

[14]  John D. Brooks,et al.  Biofilms in the food industry: problems and potential solutions , 2008 .

[15]  S. Kjelleberg,et al.  Halogenated furanones inhibit quorum sensing through accelerated LuxR turnover. , 2002, Microbiology.

[16]  C. Keevil,et al.  A paint incorporating silver to control mixed biofilms containingLegionella pneumophila , 1995, Journal of Industrial Microbiology.

[17]  P. Teixeira,et al.  Antimicrobial effects of a microemulsion and a nanoemulsion on enteric and other pathogens and biofilms. , 2007, International journal of food microbiology.

[18]  M. W. Reij,et al.  Recontamination as a source of pathogens in processed foods. , 2004, Journal of food microbiology.

[19]  A. C. Pizzolitto,et al.  Assessment of action of disinfectants against Listeria monocytogenes biofilms , 2008 .

[20]  A. Yousef,et al.  Microbiological aspects of Ozone applications in food: A review , 2001 .

[21]  K. Tait,et al.  The efficacy of bacteriophage as a method of biofilm eradication , 2002 .

[22]  James J. Collins,et al.  Dispersing biofilms with engineered enzymatic bacteriophage , 2007, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[23]  Qi Zhao,et al.  Development and evaluation of electroless Ag-PTFE composite coatings with anti-microbial and anti-corrosion properties , 2005 .

[24]  Neil D. Rawlings,et al.  MEROPS: the peptidase database , 2009, Nucleic Acids Res..

[25]  C. Pradier,et al.  Antibacterial surfaces developed from bio-inspired approaches. , 2012, Acta biomaterialia.

[26]  J. Brooks,et al.  Attachment and Heat Resistance of Campylobacter jejuni on Enterococcus faecium Biofilm , 2005 .

[27]  G. Guebitz,et al.  Antimicrobial enzymes: An emerging strategy to fight microbes and microbial biofilms , 2013, Biotechnology journal.

[28]  Hans Müller-Steinhagen,et al.  Effect of surface free energy on the adhesion of biofouling and crystalline fouling , 2005 .

[29]  R R Beumer,et al.  Survival of foodborne pathogens on stainless steel surfaces and cross-contamination to foods. , 2003, International journal of food microbiology.

[30]  Xianming Shi,et al.  Biofilm formation and food safety in food industries , 2009 .

[31]  S. Anand,et al.  Biofilms evaluation as an essential component of HACCP for food/dairy processing industry – a case , 2002 .

[32]  M. Webber,et al.  Triclosan resistance in Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium. , 2008, The Journal of antimicrobial chemotherapy.

[33]  Jiang Wei,et al.  Stainless steel modified with poly(ethylene glycol) can prevent protein adsorption but not bacterial adhesion , 2003 .

[34]  Y. Hung,et al.  Effectiveness of electrolyzed water as a sanitizer for treating different surfaces. , 2002, Journal of food protection.

[35]  S. Combrinck,et al.  Bioactivity of selected essential oils and some components on Listeria monocytogenes biofilms , 2010 .

[36]  J. Sugiyama,et al.  Applications of Electrolyzed Water in Agriculture & Food Industries , 2005 .

[37]  L. Gould,et al.  Foodborne disease outbreaks caused by Bacillus cereus, Clostridium perfringens, and Staphylococcus aureus--United States, 1998-2008. , 2013, Clinical infectious diseases : an official publication of the Infectious Diseases Society of America.

[38]  L. Melo,et al.  Antimicrobial resistance to disinfectants in biofilms , 2011 .

[39]  J. Frank,et al.  Effectiveness of chemical sanitizers against Campylobacter jejuni-containing biofilms. , 2002, Journal of food protection.

[40]  H. Johansson,et al.  Effect of surface grafted polymers on the adsorption of different model proteins. , 2004, Colloids and surfaces. B, Biointerfaces.

[41]  J. Kreyenschmidt,et al.  Study on the antimicrobial effect of silver‐containing inner liners in refrigerators , 2008, Journal of applied microbiology.

[42]  Rosário Oliveira,et al.  Salmonella enterica Enteritidis biofilm formation and viability on regular and triclosan-impregnated bench cover materials. , 2011, Journal of food protection.

[43]  Mariana Henriques,et al.  Comparison of the adhesion ability of different Salmonella enteritidis serotypes to materials used in kitchens. , 2006, Journal of food protection.

[44]  Leo H. Koole,et al.  New Strategies in the Development of Antimicrobial Coatings: The Example of Increasing Usage of Silver and Silver Nanoparticles , 2011 .

[45]  Snehal R. Jadhav,et al.  Methods used for the detection and subtyping of Listeria monocytogenes. , 2012, Journal of microbiological methods.

[46]  B Jessen,et al.  Biofilm and disinfection in meat processing plants , 2003 .

[47]  D. Ahearn,et al.  Activity of an insoluble antimicrobial quaternary amine complex in plastics , 1991, Journal of Industrial Microbiology.

[48]  D. Korber,et al.  Planktonic or biofilm growth affects survival, hydrophobicity and protein expression patterns of a pathogenic Campylobacter jejuni strain. , 2003, International journal of food microbiology.

[49]  O. Dussurget.  New insights into determinants of Listeria monocytogenes virulence. , 2008, International review of cell and molecular biology.

[50]  John D. Brooks,et al.  Properties of the stainless steel substrate, influencing the adhesion of thermo-resistant streptococci , 2000 .

[51]  T. E. Cloete,et al.  Protease and amylase enzymes for biofilm removal and degradation of extracellular polymeric substances (EPS) produced by Pseudomonas fluorescens bacteria , 2010 .

[52]  R. Shah,et al.  Inhibitory activity of yarrow essential oil on Listeria planktonic cells and biofilms , 2013 .

[53]  Sang-Do Ha,et al.  Biofilm formation in food industries: A food safety concern , 2013 .

[54]  P. Stewart,et al.  Escherichia coli O157:H7 requires colonizing partner to adhere and persist in a capillary flow cell. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[55]  G. Kiskó,et al.  Biofilm removal of Pseudomonas strains using hot water sanitation. , 2011 .

[56]  Dacheng Ren,et al.  Differential gene expression shows natural brominated furanones interfere with the autoinducer-2 bacterial signaling system of Escherichia coli. , 2004, Biotechnology and bioengineering.

[57]  M. Eberlin,et al.  Oil Wastes as Unconventional Substrates for Rhamnolipid Biosurfactant Production by Pseudomonas aeruginosa LBI , 2005, Biotechnology progress.

[58]  L. Rodrigues,et al.  Inhibition of bacterial adhesion on medical devices. , 2011, Advances in experimental medicine and biology.

[59]  L. Maes,et al.  Inhibitory Effect of Biocides on the Viable Masses and Matrices of Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa Biofilms , 2010, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[60]  C. Kumar,et al.  Significance of microbial biofilms in food industry: a review. , 1998, International journal of food microbiology.

[61]  Sheriase Q Sanders,et al.  Culture and detection of Campylobacter jejuni within mixed microbial populations of biofilms on stainless steel. , 2007, Journal of food protection.

[62]  E. H. Marth,et al.  Listeria, Listeriosis, and Food Safety, Third Edition , 2007 .

[63]  T. Møretrø,et al.  Evaluation of the antibacterial effect of a triclosan-containing floor used in the food industry. , 2006, Journal of food protection.

[64]  J. G. Banks,et al.  Some factors influencing the recovery of yeasts and moulds from chilled foods , 1987 .

[65]  C. Sorlini,et al.  Biodeterioration of modern materials in contemporary collections: can biotechnology help? , 2006, Trends in biotechnology.

[66]  K. Itoh,et al.  Influence of inoculation method, spot inoculation site, and inoculation size on the efficacy of acidic electrolyzed water against pathogens on lettuce. , 2003, Journal of food protection.

[67]  H. C. van der Mei,et al.  In vitro and in vivo antimicrobial activity of covalently coupled quaternary ammonium silane coatings on silicone rubber. , 2002, Biomaterials.

[68]  J. Costerton,et al.  Electrical enhancement of biocide efficacy against Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms , 1992, Applied and environmental microbiology.

[69]  C. Cutter.  The effectiveness of triclosan-incorporated plastic against bacteria on beef surfaces. , 1999, Journal of food protection.

[70]  K. Neoh,et al.  Lysozyme-coupled poly(poly(ethylene glycol) methacrylate)-stainless steel hybrids and their antifouling and antibacterial surfaces. , 2011, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[71]  Y. Hung,et al.  Effects of storage conditions and pH on chlorine loss in electrolyzed oxidizing (EO) water. , 2002, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[72]  J. Koberstein,et al.  Protein and bacterial fouling characteristics of peptide and antibody decorated surfaces of PEG-poly(acrylic acid) co-polymers. , 2004, Biomaterials.

[73]  I. Karunasagar,et al.  Biofilm formation by salmonella spp. on food contact surfaces and their sensitivity to sanitizers. , 2001, International journal of food microbiology.

[74]  Y. Hung,et al.  Enhancing the bactericidal effect of electrolyzed water on Listeria monocytogenes biofilms formed on stainless steel. , 2005, Journal of food protection.

[75]  T. Petkovits,et al.  Anti‐biofilm forming and anti‐quorum sensing activity of selected essential oils and their main components on food‐related micro‐organisms , 2013, Journal of applied microbiology.

[76]  P. Neubauer,et al.  Pseudomonas fluorescens biofilms subjected to phage phiIBB-PF7A , 2008, BMC biotechnology.

[77]  Jinru Chen,et al.  Attachment of enterohemorrhagic Escherichia coli to the surface of beef and a culture medium , 2007 .

[78]  P. Peterkin,et al.  Listeria monocytogenes, a food-borne pathogen , 1991, Microbiological reviews.

[79]  J. Wells,et al.  A Waterborne Outbreak in Missouri of Escherichia coli O157:H7 Associated with Bloody Diarrhea and Death , 1992, Annals of Internal Medicine.

[80]  S. Kathariou,et al.  comK Prophage Junction Fragments as Markers for Listeria monocytogenes Genotypes Unique to Individual Meat and Poultry Processing Plants and a Model for Rapid Niche-Specific Adaptation, Biofilm Formation, and Persistence , 2011, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[81]  D. Allison,et al.  Assessment of resistance towards biocides following the attachment of micro‐organisms to, and growth on, surfaces , 1999, Journal of applied microbiology.

[82]  L. L. Nesse,et al.  Control of Salmonella in food related environments by chemical disinfection , 2012 .

[83]  A. Borczyk,et al.  A community outbreak of Salmonella berta associated with a soft cheese product , 1998, Epidemiology and Infection.

[84]  Kyung Hyun Ahn,et al.  Effect of electric currents on bacterial detachment and inactivation , 2008, Biotechnology and bioengineering.

[85]  K. Myszka,et al.  Bacterial Biofilms on Food Contact Surfaces - a Review , 2011 .

[86]  F Bakkali,et al.  Biological effects of essential oils--a review. , 2008, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[87]  G. B. Schaalje,et al.  Treatment of biofilm infections on implants with low-frequency ultrasound and antibiotics. , 2005, American journal of infection control.

[88]  B. Carpentier,et al.  Characterization of bacterial strains isolated from a beef-processing plant following cleaning and disinfection - Influence of isolated strains on biofilm formation by Sakaï and EDL 933 E. coli O157:H7. , 2009, International journal of food microbiology.

[89]  P. Youderian,et al.  Biocontrol of Escherichia coli O157 with O157-Specific Bacteriophages , 1999, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[90]  C. Michiels,et al.  Biofilm formation and the food industry, a focus on the bacterial outer surface , 2010, Journal of applied microbiology.

[91]  T. Møretrø,et al.  Enhanced Surface Colonization by Escherichia coli O157:H7 in Biofilms Formed by an Acinetobacter calcoaceticus Isolate from Meat-Processing Environments , 2010, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[92]  U. Romling,et al.  Effect of Heat, Acidification, and Chlorination on Salmonella enterica Serovar Typhimurium Cells in a Biofilm Formed at the Air-Liquid Interface , 2005, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[93]  R. Stephan,et al.  Electrolyzed water and its application in the food industry. , 2008, Journal of food protection.

[94]  D. G. Black,et al.  Sources and risk factors for contamination, survival, persistence, and heat resistance of Salmonella in low-moisture foods. , 2010, Journal of food protection.

[95]  S. Opal,et al.  Bench-to-bedside review: Quorum sensing and the role of cell-to-cell communication during invasive bacterial infection , 2008, Critical care.

[96]  M. Vieira,et al.  Pseudomonas fluorescens infection by bacteriophage PhiS1: the influence of temperature, host growth phase and media. , 2004, FEMS microbiology letters.

[97]  V. Brözel,et al.  Biofilm-spore response in Bacillus cereus and Bacillus subtilis during nutrient limitation. , 2006, Journal of food protection.

[98]  T. Møretrø,et al.  Listeria monocytogenes : biofilm formation and persistence in food-processing environments , 2004 .

[99]  T. Møretrø,et al.  Evaluation of efficacy of disinfectants against Salmonella from the feed industry , 2009, Journal of applied microbiology.

[100]  P. Neubauer,et al.  Phage control of dual species biofilms of Pseudomonas fluorescens and Staphylococcus lentus , 2010, Biofouling.

[101]  S. Venter,et al.  Evaluation of oxidising disinfectants to control Vibrio biofilms in treated seawater used for fish processing. , 2010 .

[102]  N. Stern,et al.  Survival of Campylobacter jejuni in biofilms isolated from chicken houses. , 2002, Journal of food protection.

[103]  J. P. Davis,et al.  Four Strains of Escherichia coli O157:H7 Isolated from Patients during an Outbreak of Disease Associated with Ground Beef: Importance of Evaluating Multiple Colonies from an Outbreak-Associated Product , 2002, Journal of Clinical Microbiology.

[104]  Y. Hung,et al.  Effects of chlorine and pH on efficacy of electrolyzed water for inactivating Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Listeria monocytogenes. , 2004, International journal of food microbiology.

[105]  M. Fontaine‐Aupart,et al.  Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy To Study Diffusion and Reaction of Bacteriophages inside Biofilms , 2008, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[106]  I. Hanning,et al.  Campylobacter jejuni as a secondary colonizer of poultry biofilms , 2008, Journal of applied microbiology.

[107]  J. Azeredo,et al.  Note. Colonisation of Bench Cover Materials by Salmonella typhimurium , 2007 .

[108]  P. Teixeira,et al.  Food contact surfaces coated with nitrogen-doped titanium dioxide: effect on Listeria monocytogenes survival under different light sources , 2013 .

[109]  S. E. Martin,et al.  Elimination of Listeria monocytogenes biofilms by ozone, chlorine, and hydrogen peroxide. , 2005, Journal of food protection.

[110]  T. S. Jones,et al.  Campylobacter enteritis at a university: transmission from eating chicken and from cats. , 1987, American journal of epidemiology.

[111]  J. Bryers.  Biofilms II : process analysis and applications , 2000 .

[112]  James M. Steckelberg,et al.  The Electricidal Effect: Reduction of Staphylococcus and Pseudomonas Biofilms by Prolonged Exposure to Low-Intensity Electrical Current , 2008, Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy.

[113]  M. Nitschke,et al.  Evaluation of rhamnolipid and surfactin to reduce the adhesion and remove biofilms of individual and mixed cultures of food pathogenic bacteria , 2012 .

[114]  D. M. Spolidorio,et al.  Microscopical analysis of Candida albicans biofilms on heat‐polymerised acrylic resin after chlorhexidine gluconate and sodium hypochlorite treatments , 2011, Mycoses.

[115]  A. C. Wong,et al.  Influence of culture conditions on biofilm formation by Escherichia coli O157:H7. , 1995, International journal of food microbiology.

[116]  H. Schraft,et al.  Comparative evaluation of adhesion and biofilm formation of different Listeria monocytogenes strains. , 2000, International journal of food microbiology.

[117]  J. Kaplan,et al.  Susceptibility of staphylococcal biofilms to enzymatic treatments depends on their chemical composition , 2007, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[118]  L. McLandsborough,et al.  Effects of inoculation level, material hydration, and stainless steel surface roughness on the transfer of listeria monocytogenes from inoculated bologna to stainless steel and high-density polyethylene. , 2007, Journal of food protection.

[119]  Philip S. Stewart,et al.  Physiological heterogeneity in biofilms , 2008, Nature Reviews Microbiology.

[120]  S. Levy.  Antibacterial household products: cause for concern. , 2001, Emerging infectious diseases.

[121]  S. Blomqvist,et al.  Large outbreak of salmonella phage type 1 infection with high infection rate and severe illness associated with fast food premises. , 2009, Public health.

[122]  Alexander Sulakvelidze,et al.  Bacteriophages: Biology and Applications , 2007 .

[123]  H. Neve,et al.  Gene Cloning and Expression and Secretion ofListeria monocytogenes Bacteriophage-Lytic Enzymes inLactococcus lactis , 2000, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[124]  Rosário Oliveira,et al.  Adhesion of Listeria monocytogenes to materials commonly found in domestic kitchens , 2008 .

[125]  R. Piccoli,et al.  Control of planktonic and sessile bacterial cells by essential oils , 2012 .

[126]  J. Ryu,et al.  Inactivation of Escherichia coli O157:H7 in biofilm on stainless steel by treatment with an alkaline cleaner and a bacteriophage , 2005, Journal of applied microbiology.

[127]  M. Caldwell,et al.  Swimming-associated haemorrhagic colitis due to Escherichia coli O157[ratio ]H7 infection: evidence of prolonged contamination of a fresh water lake , 1997, Epidemiology and Infection.

[128]  H. Hashimoto.  [Evaluation of the anti-biofilm effect of a new anti-bacterial silver citrate/lecithin coating in an in-vitro experimental system using a modified Robbins device]. , 2001, Kansenshogaku zasshi. The Journal of the Japanese Association for Infectious Diseases.

[129]  M. Conter,et al.  Polymorphism of actA gene is not related to in vitro virulence of Listeria monocytogenes. , 2010, International journal of food microbiology.

[130]  G. Nychas,et al.  Attachment and biofilm formation by Escherichia coli O157:H7 at different temperatures, on various food-contact surfaces encountered in beef processing. , 2011, International journal of food microbiology.

[131]  P. E. Granum,et al.  What problems does the food industry have with the spore-forming pathogens Bacillus cereus and Clostridium perfringens? , 1995, International journal of food microbiology.

[132]  P. Alvarez,et al.  Assessing the antibiofouling potential of a fullerene-coated surface , 2008 .

[133]  V. Rai,et al.  Bacterial Quorum Sensing and Food Industry , 2011 .

[134]  G. Young,et al.  Effect of Flagellar Mutations on Yersinia enterocolitica Biofilm Formation , 2008, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.

[135]  R. Moezelaar,et al.  Air-Liquid Interface Biofilms of Bacillus cereus: Formation, Sporulation, and Dispersion , 2007, Applied and Environmental Microbiology.