Cognitive Engineering : Issues in User-Centered System Design

INTRODUCTION Suppose you were assigned the task of designing software to help automobile mechanics troubleshoot engine malfunctions. How would you approach the problem to ensure that you developed a usable and useful system? Or, suppose you were asked to develop computer-based procedures to replace the paper-based procedures that operators now use to monitor and control a paper-mill process. Or, suppose you were asked to build an information system to support customer service personnel in fielding phone inquiries. How would you know what information to include in the computer database or knowledge base? On what basis would you design the human-computer dialogue structure? How would you know you have developed a usable system that aids users in accomplishing their tasks and leads to improved performance? These questions do not have simple answers. In this article, we introduce some basic concepts from an emerging field called cognitive engineering that is designed to address these types of questions. Cognitive engineering is an interdisciplinary approach to the development of principles, methods, tools, and techniques to guide the design of computerized systems intended to support human performance (Norman, 1981; Woods and Roth, 1988a; 1988b). The basic unit of analysis in cognitive engineering is a cognitive system, composed of human and machine agents in a work domain that is delineated by roles, work and communication norms, artifacts, and procedures. Cognitive engineering draws on the disciplines of cognitive psychology, cognitive science, computer science, human-computer interaction, human factors, and related fields. The goal of cognitive engineering is to develop systems that are easy to learn, easy to use, and result in improved human-computer system performance. Experience with the introduction of new technology has shown that increased computerization does not guarantee improved human-machine system performance. Poor use of technology can result in systems that are difficult to learn or use, can create additional workload for system users, or in the extreme, can result in systems that are more likely to lead to catastrophic errors. Personal catastrophes have been caused by unintentional, but unrecoverable, keystrokes that wipe out entire file structures (Norman, 1983). More serious catastrophes, for example, fatal aircraft accidents, have occurred because cockpit automation switched the flight mode without Cognitive engineering attempts to prevent these types of design failures by taking explicit consideration of human processing characteristics in the context of the task. The guiding tenet of cognitive engineering is that consideration of the users and the tasks …

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