Work on quantum cryptography was started by S. J. Wiesner in a paper written in about 1970, but remained unpublished until 1983 [1]. Recently, there have been lots of renewed activities in the subject. The most wellknown application of quantum cryptography is the socalled quantum key distribution (QKD) [2–4], which is useful for making communications between two users totally unintelligible to an eavesdropper. QKD takes advantage of the uncertainty principle of quantum mechanics: Measuring a quantum system in general disturbs it. Therefore, eavesdropping on a quantum communication channel will generally leave unavoidable disturbance in the transmitted signal which can be detected by the legitimate users. Besides QKD, other quantum cryptographic protocols [5] have also been proposed. In particular, it is generally believed [4] that quantum mechanics can protect private information while it is being used for public decision. Suppose Alice has a secret x and Bob a secret y. In a “two-party secure computation” (TPSC), Alice and Bob compute a prescribed function f(x,y) in such a way that nothing about each party’s input is disclosed to the other, except for what follows logically from one’s private input and the function’s output. An example of the TPSC is the millionaires’ problem: Two persons would like to know who is richer, but neither wishes the other to know the exact amount of money he/she has. In classical cryptography, TPSC can be achieved either through trusted intermediaries or by invoking some unproven computational assumptions such as the hardness of factoring large integers. The great expectation is that quantum cryptography can get rid of those requirements and achieve the same goal using the laws of physics alone. At the heart of such optimism has been the widespread belief that unconditionally secure quantum bit commitment (QBC) schemes exist [6]. Here we put such optimism into very serious doubt by showing
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