HYDROGEN IN METALS: Microstructural Aspects

▪ Abstract Metal-hydrogen (M-H) systems are interesting from both a theoretical and a practical point of view. M-H systems are utilized for energy-storage systems, in sensor applications, and in catalysis. These systems are often exploited as models for studying basic material properties, especially when the size of these systems is small and nonbulk-like contributions become dominant. Surfaces, nanocrystals, vacancy- and dislocation-rich materials, thin films, multilayers, and clusters as systems of major interest are addressed in this review. We show that the hydrogen solubility of M-H systems is strongly affected by the morphology and microstructure of and the stress between regions of different hydrogen concentration. For small-sized systems, surface- or interface-related sites become important and change the overall solubility as well as the phase boundaries of M-H systems. In thin films deposited on stiff substrates, compressive stresses evolve during hydrogen loading because the films are effective...

[1]  C. Thompson.  Texture evolution during grain growth in polycrystalline films , 1993 .

[2]  I. Efremenko,et al.  Implication of palladium geometric and electronic structures to hydrogen activation on bulk surfaces and clusters , 2001 .

[3]  R. Kirchheim,et al.  Segregation and diffusion of hydrogen in grain boundaries of palladium , 1987 .

[4]  N. Takagi,et al.  Path and mechanism of hydrogen absorption at Pd(100) , 1998 .

[5]  William L. Johnson,et al.  Crystal-to-glass transformation in metallic materials☆ , 1988 .

[6]  A. Züttel,et al.  Material properties of MBH4 (M= Li, Na, and K) , 2004 .

[7]  M. Fichtner,et al.  Nanocrystalline aluminium hydrides for hydrogen storage , 2004 .

[8]  G. Somorjai,et al.  Low energy electron diffraction studies of chemisorbed gases on stepped surfaces of platinum , 1972 .

[9]  Schwarz,et al.  Thermodynamics of open two-phase systems with coherent interfaces. , 1995, Physical review letters.

[10]  P. A. Duine,et al.  Optical switches based on magnesium lanthanide alloy hydrides , 1997 .

[11]  A. Remhof,et al.  Hydrogen in thin epitaxial Nb films , 1999 .

[12]  D. Fritsch,et al.  Catalysis with homogeneous membranes loaded with nanoscale metallic clusters and their preparation , 1995 .

[13]  C. P. Flynn,et al.  Hydrogen tunneling states in niobium , 1976 .

[14]  P. Downes,et al.  Hydrogen storage in sonicated carbon materials , 2001 .

[15]  Hydrogen-induced strain modulation in Nb-Ta superlattices. , 1985, Physical review letters.

[16]  T. Leervadpedersen.  Hydrogen-induced changes of mechanical stress and optical transmission in thin Pd films , 2004 .

[17]  J. Rodrigues,et al.  More evidence for the formation of a dense cottrell cloud of hydrogen (hydride) at dislocations in niobium and palladium , 1983 .

[18]  A. Remhof,et al.  Hydrogen in thin epitaxial metal films and superlattices: structure, magnetism, and transport , 1999 .

[19]  T. Schober.  Electron microscopy of hydride precipitates in niobium , 1973 .

[20]  Andreas Züttel,et al.  Hydrogen density in nanostructured carbon, metals and complex materials , 2004 .

[21]  H. Gleiter,et al.  Nanostructured materials: basic concepts and microstructure☆ , 2000 .

[22]  C. Thompson.  The yield stress of polycrystalline thin films , 1993 .

[23]  Andreas Züttel,et al.  Hydrogen storage in carbon nanostructures , 2002 .

[24]  Kuochih Hong.  The development of hydrogen storage alloys and the progress of nickel hydride batteries , 2001 .

[25]  J. Nørskov,et al.  Interaction of Hydrogen with Defects in Metals: Interplay between Theory and Experiment , 1982 .

[26]  H. F. Busnengo,et al.  Diffusion of a hydrogen atom on the Pd(1 1 1) surface: quantum transition state wave packet approach , 2003 .

[27]  T. Flanagan,et al.  The Effect of the Absorption of Hydrogen and Deuterium on the Frequency of a Quartz-Palladium Resonator , 1974 .

[28]  E. Haller,et al.  Hydrogen interactions with defects in crystalline solids , 1992 .

[29]  K. Rieder,et al.  Selective Transition of Chemisorbed Hydrogen to Subsurface Sites on Pd(110) , 1983 .

[30]  Y. Fukai.  Formation of superabundant vacancies in M-H alloys and some of its consequences : a review , 2003 .

[31]  T. Klassen,et al.  Metal oxides as catalysts for improved hydrogen sorption in nanocrystalline Mg-based materials , 2001 .

[32]  A. Załuska,et al.  Lithium–beryllium hydrides: the lightest reversible metal hydrides , 2000 .

[33]  F. Klose,et al.  Hydrogen concentration and its relation to interplanar spacing and layer thickness of 1000-Å Nb(110) films during in situ hydrogen charging experiments , 1999 .

[34]  S. Tavares,et al.  Investigation of the vacancy-ordered phases in the Pd–H system , 2001 .

[35]  Mario Conte,et al.  Overview of energy/hydrogen storage: state-of-the-art of the technologies and prospects for nanomaterials , 2004 .

[36]  J. W. Matthews,et al.  Defects in epitaxial multilayers: I. Misfit dislocations* , 1974 .

[37]  A. Pundt,et al.  Hydrogen-induced defects in bulk niobium , 2004 .

[38]  Andreas Mandelis,et al.  Solid‐state sensors for trace hydrogen gas detection , 1990 .

[39]  R. Koch.  Chapter 12 Intrinsic stress of epitaxial thin films and surface layers , 1997 .

[40]  G. Ertl,et al.  Interaction of hydrogen with Pt(111): The role of atomic steps , 1976 .

[41]  W. A. Oates,et al.  The Palladium-Hydrogen System , 1991 .

[42]  J. Doll,et al.  The quantum dynamics of hydrogen and deuterium on the Pd(111) surface: A path integral transition state theory study , 1993 .

[43]  R. Hempelmann,et al.  Hydrogen in nanocrystalline Pd: a nuclear magnetic resonance study , 1998 .

[44]  J. W. Matthews,et al.  Defects in epitaxial multilayers: II. Dislocation pile-ups, threading dislocations, slip lines and cracks , 1975 .

[45]  W. Johnson,et al.  Nanocrystalline metals prepared by high-energy ball milling , 1990 .

[46]  C. P. Flynn,et al.  Quantum Theory of Diffusion with Application to Light Interstitials in Metals , 1970 .

[47]  F. Klose,et al.  The fragile magnetic structures of Fe/CeH2−δ multilayers , 2000 .

[48]  M. Mckubre,et al.  A continuous in situ method for the measurement of dissolved hydrogen in high-temperature aqueous systems , 1981 .

[49]  H. Zabel,et al.  Hydrogen-induced lattice expansion of vanadium in a Fe/V (001) single-crystal superlattice , 1997 .

[50]  Fukai,et al.  Formation of superabundant vacancies in Pd hydride under high hydrogen pressures. , 1994, Physical review letters.

[51]  H. Wenzl,et al.  The systems NbH(D), TaH(D), VH(D) : Structures, phase diagrams, morphologies, methods of preparation , 1978 .

[52]  H. Sugimoto,et al.  Diffusion of hydrogen in metals , 1985 .

[53]  Richard K. Moore,et al.  From theory to applications , 1986 .

[54]  R. Kerl,et al.  Vacancy Formation and Diffusion in FeAl-Alloys , 2001 .

[55]  Y. S. Cho,et al.  Synthesis of yttriumtrihydride films for ex-situ measurements , 1996 .

[56]  H. Zabel,et al.  Coherent α-α′ phase transition of hydrogen in niobium , 1980 .

[57]  Astrid Pundt,et al.  Nanoskalige Metall-Wasserstoff-Systeme , 2005 .

[58]  G. S. Rushbrooke.  Introduction to statistical mechanics , 1949 .

[59]  R. Tannenbaum,et al.  Infrared study of the kinetics and mechanism of adsorption of acrylic polymers on alumina surfaces. , 2004, Langmuir : the ACS journal of surfaces and colloids.

[60]  Gerhard Ertl,et al.  Adsorption of hydrogen on palladium single crystal surfaces , 1974 .

[61]  P. Sluis.  Optical switches of gadolinium–magnesium multilayers , 1998 .

[62]  H. Zabel,et al.  Adjustable magnetic interactions: the use of hydrogen as a tuning agent , 2003 .

[63]  G. Ertl,et al.  Interaction of hydrogen with a palladium (110) surface , 1983 .

[64]  R. Hempelmann,et al.  Dynamics of hydrogen in intermetallic hydrides , 1992 .

[65]  J. S. King,et al.  SANS measurements of deuterium-dislocation trapping in deformed single crystal Pd , 1997 .

[66]  B. Hjörvarsson,et al.  Off-resonance and straggling measurements using the 1H(15N, αγ)12C reaction , 1990 .

[67]  F. Favier,et al.  Hydrogen Sensors and Switches from Electrodeposited Palladium Mesowire Arrays , 2001, Science.

[68]  P. Dennery,et al.  An introduction to statistical mechanics , 1972 .

[69]  Astrid Pundt,et al.  Hydrogen in Nano‐sized Metals , 2004 .

[70]  Zabel,et al.  Solubility isotherms of hydrogen in epitaxial Nb(110) films. , 1996, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[71]  R. Griessen,et al.  Self-organized layered hydrogenation in black Mg2NiHx switchable mirrors. , 2004, Physical review letters.

[72]  L. J. Jongh.  Introduction to Metal Cluster Compounds: From Molecule to Metal! , 1994 .

[73]  M. Daw,et al.  Summary Abstract: A theoretical study of the order–disorder transitions for hydrogen on Pd(111) , 1985 .

[74]  N. Takagi,et al.  A new reaction channel in H(g)+D(a)/Pd(100) : absorption versus abstraction , 1999 .

[75]  R. Wiswall.  Hydrogen storage in metals , 1978 .

[76]  Reiner Kirchheim,et al.  Hydrogen as a probe for the average thickness of a grain boundary , 1987 .

[77]  A. Züttel,et al.  Thermodynamic aspects of the interaction of hydrogen with Pd clusters , 2000 .

[78]  A. Pundt,et al.  Phase transition and lattice expansion during hydrogen loading of nanometer sized palladium clusters , 2003 .

[79]  Y. Matsumura,et al.  Hydrogen absorption of nanocrystalline palladium , 2002 .

[80]  W. A. Oates,et al.  The solubility of hydrogen in transition metals and their alloys , 1981 .

[81]  C. P. Flynn,et al.  Anomalous lattice expansion of metal-hydrogen thin films , 1991 .

[82]  K. Hellwege,et al.  Landolt-Börnstein, Numerical Data and Functional Relationships in Science and Technology , 1967 .

[83]  John R. Lacher,et al.  A Theoretical Formula for the Solubility of Hydrogen in Palladium , 1937 .

[84]  B. Heuser,et al.  Small-angle x-ray scattering measurements of hydrogen evolution from an epitaxial Nb film , 2002 .

[85]  Yang,et al.  Hydrogen in Pd/Nb multilayers. , 1996, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[86]  Y. Fukai.  The Metal-Hydrogen System , 2005 .

[87]  J. Aston,et al.  PALLADIUM HYDRIDE II, THE ENTROPY OF PD2H AT 0 0 K , 1957 .

[88]  M. Ohring.  The Materials Science of Thin Films , 1991 .

[89]  A. Pundt,et al.  Hydrogen-induced stress in Nb single layers , 1999 .

[90]  H. C. Jamieson,et al.  The β → α phase transformation in palladium-hydrogen alloys , 1976 .

[91]  F. Besenbacher,et al.  Defect trapping of ion‐implanted deuterium in nickel , 1979 .

[92]  J. H. Rector,et al.  Yttrium and lanthanum hydride films with switchable optical properties , 1996, Nature.

[93]  A. Pundt,et al.  Hydrogen and Pd-clusters , 2004 .

[94]  Jan H. Rector,et al.  Pressure-composition isotherms of thin PdHc films☆ , 1987 .

[95]  H. Birnbaum,et al.  Phase changes in the niobium-hydrogen system. I. Accommodation effects during hydride precipitation. Technical report , 1979 .

[96]  Vajda,et al.  Hydrogen ordering and metal-semiconductor transitions in the system YH2+x. , 1992, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[97]  B. Hjörvarsson,et al.  Metallic superlattices: quasi two-dimensional playground for hydrogen , 1997 .

[98]  G. Alefeld,et al.  5 – Hydrogen Diffusion in Metals , 1975 .

[99]  M. Mizutani,et al.  Superabundant vacancy-hydrogen clusters in electrodeposited Ni and Cu , 2003 .

[100]  R. Kirchheim.  Hydrogen solubility and diffusivity in defective and amorphous metals , 1988 .

[101]  A. Driessen,et al.  Heat of formation and band structure of binary and ternary metal hydrides , 1984 .

[102]  E. Akiba,et al.  Preparation of the hydrides Mg2FeH6 and Mg2CoH5 by mechanical alloying followed by sintering , 1997 .

[103]  P. M. Richards,et al.  Ion-beam studies of hydrogen-metal interactions , 1989 .

[104]  H. Bönnemann,et al.  Nanoscopic Metal Particles − Synthetic Methods and Potential Applications , 2001 .

[105]  Strongin,et al.  Hydrogen absorption by thin Pd/Nb films deposited on glass. , 1996, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[106]  C. Stander.  Kinetics of decomposition of magnesium hydride , 1977 .

[107]  W. Nakamura,et al.  Positron annihilation study of lattice defects induced by hydrogen absorption in some hydrogen storage materials , 2002 .

[108]  T. Ohno,et al.  Stability and clusterization of hydrogen-vacancy complexes in α-Fe: An ab initio study , 2003 .

[109]  A. Magerl,et al.  Surface Tension and Subsurface Sites of Metallic Nanocrystals Determined from H-Absorption , 1988 .

[110]  M. Latroche.  Structural and thermodynamic properties of metallic hydrides used for energy storage , 2004 .

[111]  R. Kirchheim.  Solid Solutions of Hydrogen in Complex Materials , 2005 .

[112]  A. Züttel,et al.  Hydrogen-storage materials for mobile applications , 2001, Nature.

[113]  F. Klose,et al.  Continuous and Reversible Change of the Magnetic Coupling in an Fe/Nb Multilayer Induced by Hydrogen Charging , 1997 .

[114]  John W. Cahn,et al.  On Spinodal Decomposition , 1961 .

[115]  R. Cowley,et al.  Magnetic structure of Gd, GdH2 and NdH2 single crystal films , 2000 .

[116]  B. Hjörvarsson,et al.  Hydrogenated tantalum: A convenient calibration substance for hydrogen profile analysis using nuclear resonance reactions , 1989 .

[117]  R. Kirchheim.  INTERACTION OF HYDROGEN WITH DISLOCATIONS IN PALLADIUM—I. ACTIVITY AND DIFFUSIVITY AND THEIR PHENOMENOLOGICAL INTERPRETATION , 1981 .

[118]  J. Weissmuller,et al.  On the size dependence of the critical point of nanoscale interstitial solid solutions , 2000 .

[119]  R. Griessen.  Schaltbare Spiegel aus Metallhydriden , 1997 .

[120]  K. Samwer.  Amorphisation in solid metallic systems , 1988 .

[121]  P. Fayet,et al.  Palladium clusters: H2 , O2 , N2 , CH4 , C04 , C2H4 , and C2H, reactivity and O 2 saturation studies , 1990 .

[122]  Schwarz,et al.  Thermodynamics of open two-phase systems with coherent interfaces. , 1995, Physical review letters.

[123]  Zhili Xiao,et al.  Self-assembled monolayer-enhanced hydrogen sensing with ultrathin palladium films , 2005 .

[124]  J. Pajak,et al.  Positron Annihilation in Pure and Hydrogenated Palladium Deformed by Uniaxial Tension , 2001 .

[125]  A. Pundt,et al.  Surface modification of Nb-films during hydrogen loading , 2003 .

[126]  M. Ouwerkerk.  Electrochemically induced optical switching of Sm0.3Mg0.7Hx thin layers , 1998 .

[127]  B. Heuser,et al.  Deuterium phase behavior in thin-film Pd , 1998 .

[128]  R. Buhrman,et al.  Ultrafine metal particles , 1976 .

[129]  J. Dura,et al.  Reversible tuning of the magnetic exchange coupling in Fe/V (001) superlattices using hydrogen , 1997 .

[130]  Masao Doyama,et al.  Computer Aided Innovation of New Materials , 1991 .

[131]  Thompson,et al.  Narrowing of the palladium-hydrogen miscibility gap in nanocrystalline palladium. , 1993, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[132]  R. Griessen,et al.  Logarithmic divergence of the electrical resistivity in the metal hydride YH3-d. , 1997 .

[133]  Shuhei Ohnishi,et al.  Hydrogen storage in Pd clusters , 2000 .

[134]  J. W. Matthews,et al.  Defects in epitaxial multilayers , 1974 .

[135]  K. Christmann,et al.  Adsorption and absorption of hydrogen on a palladium (210) surface: a combined LEED, TDS, ΔФ and HREELS study , 1998 .

[136]  P. Aben.  Palladium areas in supported catalystsDetermination of palladium surface areas in supported catalysts by means of hydrogen chemisorption , 1968 .

[137]  A. Pundt,et al.  Small angle neutron scattering of hydrogen segregation at dislocations in palladium , 2001 .

[138]  Masanao Iwamoto,et al.  Superabundant Vacancy Formation in Iron under High Hydrogen Pressures: Thermal Desorption Spectroscopy , 1999 .

[139]  E. Wicke,et al.  Hydrogen in palladium and palladium alloys , 1978 .

[140]  Myers,et al.  Multiple deuterium occupancy of vacancies in Pd and related metals. , 1989, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[141]  E. Arzt.  Size effects in materials due to microstructural and dimensional constraints: a comparative review , 1998 .

[142]  Zabel,et al.  Electrical, structural, and superconducting properties of hydrogenated Nb-Ta superlattices. , 1987, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[143]  H. Horner,et al.  Elastic interaction and phase transition in coherent metal-hydrogen alloys , 1974 .

[144]  H. Fujii,et al.  Lithium nitride for reversible hydrogen storage , 2004 .

[145]  C. P. Flynn,et al.  Elastic Properties of Hydrogen-Loaded Epitaxial Films*, ** , 1993 .

[146]  H. Birnbaum,et al.  Hydride precipitation in Nb and some properties of NbH. Technical report , 1976 .

[147]  H. Peisl,et al.  Lattice strains due to hydrogen in metals , 1978 .

[148]  A. Pundt,et al.  Stress development in thin yttrium films on hard substrates during hydrogen loading , 2003 .

[149]  R. Griessen,et al.  Gravimetrical determination of pressure-composition isotherms of thin PdHc films , 1986 .

[150]  James H. Adair,et al.  Hydrogen storage in spherical and platelet palladium nanoparticles , 2005 .

[151]  N. Okuma,et al.  Evidence of Copious Vacancy Formation in Ni and Pd under a High Hydrogen Pressure , 1993 .

[152]  R. Günther,et al.  Pixel switching of epitaxial Pd/YHx/CaF2 switchable mirrors , 2000, Nature.

[153]  D. Ross,et al.  The use of small angle neutron scattering in the study of hydrogen trapping at defects in metals , 1999 .

[154]  Zabel,et al.  Hydrogen-induced lattice expansion in a (001)-oriented Mo/V superlattice. , 1996, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[155]  M. Wuttig,et al.  Mechanical stresses upon hydrogen induced optical switching in thin films , 2003 .

[156]  Y. Fukai,et al.  Superabundant vacancy formation in Ni–H alloys , 2001 .

[157]  A. Inoue,et al.  Determination of density and vacancy concentration in rapidly solidified FeAl ribbons , 2003 .

[158]  P. A. Duine,et al.  Optical transmission spectroscopy of switchable yttrium hydride films. , 1998 .

[159]  M. B. Bever,et al.  Encyclopedia of Materials Science and Engineering , 2001 .

[160]  M. Henzler,et al.  Oberflächenphysik des Festkörpers , 1991 .

[161]  A. Załuska,et al.  Hydrogenation properties of complex alkali metal hydrides fabricated by mechano-chemical synthesis , 1999 .

[162]  P. Nordlander,et al.  Multiple hydrogen occupancy of vacancies in Fe , 1987 .

[163]  J. W. Matthews.  Defects associated with the accommodation of misfit between crystals , 1975 .

[164]  H. Wipf.  Hydrogen in Metals III , 1997 .

[165]  Marian W. Urbanczyk,et al.  Thin palladium film as a sensor of hydrogen gas dissolved in transformer oil , 2002 .

[166]  R. Wiesendanger,et al.  H-induced plastic deformation of Gd thin films studied by STM. , 2000 .

[167]  M. Hirscher,et al.  Are carbon nanostructures an efficient hydrogen storage medium , 2003 .

[168]  J. H. Merwe.  Crystal Interfaces. Part I. Semi‐Infinite Crystals , 1963 .

[169]  Bernard Dam,et al.  Contrast enhancement of rare-earth switchable mirrors through microscopic shutter effect , 1999 .

[170]  Karlsson,et al.  Interface effects of hydrogen uptake in Mo/V single-crystal superlattices. , 1991, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[171]  Phl Peter Notten,et al.  Optical Switching of Y‐Hydride Thin Film Electrodes A Remarkable Electrochromic Phenomenon , 1996 .

[172]  R. Glosser,et al.  Pressure concentration isotherms of thin films of the palladium‐hydrogen system as modified by film thickness, hydrogen cycling, and stress , 1985 .

[173]  A. Pundt,et al.  H- and D distribution in metallic multilayers studied by 3-dimensional atom probe analysis and secondary ion mass spectrometry , 2002 .

[174]  A. Pundt,et al.  Hydrogen absorption behaviour in nanometer sized palladium samples stabilised in soft and hard matrix , 2005 .

[175]  Frans Spaepen,et al.  Tensile testing of free-standing Cu, Ag and Al thin films and Ag/Cu multilayers , 2000 .

[176]  H. Hahn,et al.  An investigation of hydrogen diffusion in nanocrystalline Pd by neutron spectroscopy , 1997 .

[177]  Reiner Kirchheim,et al.  Solubility of hydrogen in single-sized palladium clusters , 2001 .

[178]  H. Horner,et al.  A model calculation for the α-α' phase transition in metal-hydrogen systems , 1974 .

[179]  J. Aston,et al.  PALLADIUM HYDRIDE I. THE THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF PD2H BETWEEN 273 0 AND 345 0 K , 1957 .

[180]  S. Orimo,et al.  Remarkable hydrogen storage properties in three-layered Pd/Mg/Pd thin films , 2002 .

[181]  H. Zabel,et al.  Sample-Shape-Dependent Phase Transition of Hydrogen in Niobium , 1979 .

[182]  S. T. Picraux.  Defect trapping of gas atoms in metals , 1981 .

[183]  Matthias Wuttig,et al.  Hydrogen-induced changes of mechanical stress and optical transmission in thin Pd films , 2004 .

[184]  G. Schmid,et al.  Clusters and colloids : from theory to applications , 1994 .

[185]  A. Züttel,et al.  Critical size and surface effect of the hydrogen interaction of palladium clusters , 2000 .

[186]  D. N. Beshers.  On the distribution of impurity atoms in the stress field of a dislocation , 1958 .

[187]  U. Stimming,et al.  Visualization of Surfactants on Nanostructured Palladium Clusters by a Combination of STM and High-Resolution TEM , 1995, Science.

[188]  J. Weissmüller.  Thermodynamics of Nanocrystalline Solids , 2002 .

[189]  A. Załuska,et al.  Structure, catalysis and atomic reactions on the nano-scale: a systematic approach to metal hydrides for hydrogen storage , 2001 .

[190]  S. Sartori,et al.  Hydrogen desorption from magnesium hydride-graphite nanocomposites produced by ball milling , 2004 .

[191]  William D. Nix,et al.  Mechanical properties of thin films , 1989 .

[192]  Dan Thoma,et al.  In-situ hydrogen charging of Pd and Pd-Rh in the TEM , 1997 .

[193]  G. Ertl,et al.  Adsorption of hydrogen on Pd(100) , 1980 .

[194]  Hans-Ulrich Krebs,et al.  Intrinsic stress evolution in laser deposited thin films , 2003 .

[195]  Reinhold Koch,et al.  The intrinsic stress of polycrystalline and epitaxial thin metal films , 1994 .

[196]  A. Petford-Long,et al.  Structural changes to epitaxial (0001) holmium layers during hydrogen loading , 2000 .

[197]  J. S. King,et al.  Sans measurement of deuterium trapping at dislocations and grain boundaries in palladium , 1991 .

[198]  B. Bogdanovic,et al.  Ti-doped alkali metal aluminium hydrides as potential novel reversible hydrogen storage materials , 1997 .

[199]  R. Griessen,et al.  Hydrogen sorption mechanism of oxidized nickel clusters , 2004 .

[200]  M. Reetz,et al.  A New Method for the Preparation of Nanostructured Metal Clusters , 1995 .

[201]  Astrid Pundt,et al.  Hydrogen-induced percolation in discontinuous films , 2002 .

[202]  M. Winter,et al.  Hydrogen sorption in elastically soft stabilized Pd-clusters , 1999 .

[203]  T. Flanagan,et al.  Hysteresis in metal/hydrogen systems , 1980 .

[204]  T. Klassen,et al.  Comparison of the catalytic effects of V, V2O5, VN, and VC on the hydrogen sorption of nanocrystalline Mg , 2001 .

[205]  Peter H. L. Notten,et al.  Yttrium and lanthanum hydride films with switchable optical properties , 1997 .

[206]  S. Jain,et al.  Misfit strain and misfit dislocations in lattice mismatched epitaxial layers and other systems , 1997 .

[207]  Eduard Arzt,et al.  Effects of grain orientation on hillock formation and grain growth in aluminum films on silicon substrates , 1992 .

[208]  M. Ramos.  Theoretical study of metal–polyimide interfacial properties , 2002 .

[209]  Klaus Christmann,et al.  Interaction of hydrogen with solid surfaces , 1988 .

[210]  R. Kirchheim.  Grain coarsening inhibited by solute segregation , 2002 .

[211]  Klaus Schlichte,et al.  The application of Mg-based metal-hydrides as heat energy storage systems , 2000 .

[212]  H. Hahn,et al.  LOW-FREQUENCY MODES IN NANOCRYSTALLINE PD , 1998 .

[213]  J. Steiger,et al.  Hydrogen in Nb and Nb/Ti/Nb Thin Films* , 1993 .

[214]  G. Schmid.  Clusters and Colloids , 1994 .

[215]  J. Hafner,et al.  Hydrogen adsorption on palladium: a comparative theoretical study of different surfaces , 1998 .

[216]  J. H. Van Der Merwe,et al.  Crystal Interfaces. Part II. Finite Overgrowths , 1963 .

[217]  J. F. Stampfer,et al.  THE MAGNESIUM-HYDROGEN SYSTEM , 1960 .

[218]  A. Remhof,et al.  Electrical and optical properties of epitaxial YHx switchable mirrors , 2005 .

[219]  S. Nunes,et al.  Structural Characterization of Catalytically Active Metal Nanoclusters in Poly(amide imide) Films with High Metal Loading , 1997 .

[220]  R. Wiesendanger,et al.  Hydrogen Induced Plastic Deformation of Thin Films , 1999 .

[221]  J. Weissmüller,et al.  Lattice Constants of Solid Solution Microstructures: The Case of Nanocrystalline Pd-H , 1999 .

[222]  G. Alefeld.  Wasserstoff in Metallen als Beispiel für ein Gittergas mit Phasenumwandlungen , 1969 .

[223]  A. Załuska,et al.  Synergy of hydrogen sorption in ball-milled hydrides of Mg and Mg2Ni , 1999 .

[224]  S. Orimo,et al.  Materials science of Mg-Ni-based new hydrides , 2001 .

[225]  A. Załuska,et al.  Nanocrystalline metal hydrides , 1997 .

[226]  M. Kogachi,et al.  Point defect behavior in B2-type intermetallic compounds , 2002 .

[227]  G. Ertl,et al.  Evidence for ‘‘subsurface’’ hydrogen on Pd(110): An intermediate between chemisorbed and dissolved species , 1983 .

[228]  J. Nørskov,et al.  Interaction of hydrogen with defects in metals , 1985 .

[229]  R. Hempelmann,et al.  Hydrogen in nanocrystalline palladium , 1997 .

[230]  Foiles,et al.  Theory of subsurface occupation, ordered structures, and order-disorder transitions for hydrogen on Pd(111). , 1987, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[231]  D. F. Ogletree,et al.  Hydrogen adsorption and diffusion on Pd(1 1 1) , 2003 .

[232]  T. D. Lee,et al.  Statistical Theory of Equations of State and Phase Transitions. II. Lattice Gas and Ising Model , 1952 .

[233]  B. Hjörvarsson,et al.  INFLUENCE OF COMPRESSIVE BIAXIAL STRAIN ON THE HYDROGEN UPTAKE OF ULTRATHIN SINGLE-CRYSTAL VANADIUM LAYERS , 1997 .

[234]  Jacques Huot,et al.  Mechanically alloyed metal hydride systems , 2001 .

[235]  Wilke,et al.  Ab initio calculations of hydrogen adsorption on (100) surfaces of palladium and rhodium. , 1994, Physical review. B, Condensed matter.

[236]  A. Pundt,et al.  Hydrogen-Induced Defects in Niobium Studied by Positron Annihilation , 2004 .

[237]  D. F. Ogletree,et al.  Dissociative hydrogen adsorption on palladium requires aggregates of three or more vacancies , 2003, Nature.

[238]  Guenter Schmid,et al.  Large clusters and colloids. Metals in the embryonic state , 1992 .

[239]  D. Ross,et al.  Small Angle Neutron Scattering Studies of H(D) Trapping on Dislocations in Metals* , 1994 .

[240]  G. Gottstein,et al.  Physikalische Grundlagen der Materialkunde , 1998 .

[241]  A. Inoue,et al.  Vacancy clustering and relaxation behavior in rapidly solidified B2 FeAl ribbons , 2005 .

[242]  E. Akiba.  Hydrogen-absorbing alloys , 1999 .

[243]  Louis Schlapbach,et al.  Surface properties and activation , 1992 .

[244]  A. Pundt,et al.  Interaction of hydrogen and deuterium with dislocations in palladium as observed by small angle neutron scattering , 2001 .

[245]  K. Sturm,et al.  Pulsed Laser Deposition (PLD) -- A Versatile Thin Film Technique , 2003 .

[246]  P. Fayet,et al.  Abnormally large deuterium uptake on small transition metal clusters , 1990 .