A Review of Multidimensional, Multifluid Intermediate‐Scale Experiments: Nonaqueous Phase Liquid Dissolution and Enhanced Remediation

A review is presented of original multidimensional, intermediate-scale experiments involving nonaqueous phase liquids. The experimental approach at this scale can be viewed as an important intermediary between column studies and field trials. The primary advantage of intermediate-scale flow cell experiments is that field-scale processes can be simulated under controlled conditions. The experiments are frequently conducted to provide data sets to test and verify numerical and analytical flow and transport models. The controlled setting and laboratory instrumentation reduces the uncertainty in parameter estimation, allowing comparisons between simulation and experimental results to focus on flow and transport processes. A total of about 120 original contributions were identified and reviewed. Depending on the main topic of NAPL experimental research, the papers were divided into the following sections: (1) Dissolution, (2) Enhanced Remediation, (3) Flow behavior, (4) Quantification, and, (5) Imaging. In this paper, the categories Dissolution and Enhanced Remediation are discussed and suggestions for future research are provided. In a companion paper, experimental work related to the other three categories is reviewed. The Dissolution category includes experiments in which NAPL removal occurs due to water flushing. The Enhanced Remediation section contains experimental contributions investigating surfactant flushing, alcohol flushing, surfactant/alcohol combinations, dense brine barriermore » strategies, oil recovery through pumping, soil vapor extraction, air sparging, steam injection, bioremediation, and other techniques.« less

[1]  D. Grubb,et al.  Recovery of dodecane, octane and toluene spills in sandpacks using ethanol. , 2004, Journal of hazardous materials.

[2]  B. Kueper,et al.  Manipulation of density and viscosity for the optimization of DNAPL recovery by alcohol flooding , 1999 .

[3]  N. Thomson,et al.  Laboratory-scale in situ chemical oxidation of a perchloroethylene pool using permanganate. , 2002, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[4]  W. E. Hill,et al.  Surfactant enhanced removal of PCE in a partially saturated, stratified porous medium 1 Contribution , 1998 .

[5]  L. R. Chevalier,et al.  Impact of Surfactant on Configuration of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Lens , 1998 .

[6]  Constantinos V. Chrysikopoulos,et al.  Three‐Dimensional Analytical Models of Contaminant Transport From Nonaqueous Phase Liquid Pool Dissolution in Saturated Subsurface Formations , 1995 .

[7]  C. T. Miller,et al.  Remediation of DNAPL pools using dense brine barrier strategies. , 2001, Environmental science & technology.

[8]  Mary C. Hill,et al.  UCODE, a computer code for universal inverse modeling 1 Code available at http://water.usgs.gov/soft , 1999 .

[9]  Linda M Abriola,et al.  Influence of surfactant-facilitated interfacial tension reduction on chlorinated solvent migration in porous media: observations and numerical simulation. , 2003, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[10]  Gary A. Pope,et al.  A new concept: the use of neutrally-buoyant microemulsions for DNAPL remediation , 1998 .

[11]  F. Schwartz,et al.  Destruction efficiencies and dynamics of reaction fronts associated with the permanganate oxidation of trichloroethylene. , 2003, Environmental science & technology.

[12]  J. Pankow,et al.  Dissolution of Dense Chlorinated Solvents into Ground Water: 1. Dissolution from a Well‐Defined Residual Source , 1992 .

[13]  K. Jensen,et al.  Remediation of NAPL below the water table by steam-induced heat conduction. , 2004, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[14]  M. Oostrom.  Carbon tetrachloride removal from a heterogeneous porous medium by two soil vapor extraction techniques , 2005 .

[15]  Evangelos A. Voudrias,et al.  Dissolution of TCE and TCA Pools in Saturated Subsurface Systems , 1994 .

[16]  C. S. Simmons,et al.  Investigation of density-dependent gas advection of trichloroethylene: experiment and a model validation exercise , 1995 .

[17]  W. E. Hill,et al.  Surfactant enhanced removal of PCE in a nominally two-dimensional, saturated, stratified porous medium , 1998 .

[18]  John F. McBride,et al.  Dense Chlorinated Solvents in Porous and Fractured Media: Model Experiments , 1990 .

[19]  M. Annable,et al.  Mobilization and entry of DNAPL pools into finer sand media by cosolvents: two-dimensional chamber studies. , 2002, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[20]  J. Hughes,et al.  Inoculation of a DNAPL source zone to initiate reductive dechlorination of PCE. , 2003, Environmental science & technology.

[21]  T. Illangasekare,et al.  Investigation of surfactant-enhanced dissolution of entrapped nonaqueous phase liquid chemicals in a two-dimensional groundwater flow field. , 2001, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[22]  Susan E. Powers,et al.  Dissolution of NAPLs Entrapped in Heterogeneous Porous Media , 1996 .

[23]  Andrew Klimek,et al.  The use of surfactants for in situ extraction of organic pollutants from a contaminated aquifer , 1991 .

[24]  Jacob H. Dane,et al.  Experimental investigation of dense solute plumes in an unconfined aquifer model , 1992 .

[25]  Larry W. Lake,et al.  Free‐Product Recovery of Petroleum Hydrocarbon Liquids , 2000 .

[26]  J. C. Parker,et al.  Estimation of Free Hydrocarbon Volume from Fluid Levels in Monitoring Wells , 1990 .

[27]  S. Powers,et al.  NAPL dissolution in heterogeneous systems: an experimental investigation in a simple heterogeneous system , 2000 .

[28]  Paul T. Imhoff,et al.  DISSOLUTION FINGERING DURING THE SOLUBILIZATION OF NONAQUEOUS PHASE LIQUIDS IN SATURATED POROUS MEDIA. 2. EXPERIMENTAL OBSERVATIONS , 1996 .

[29]  J. Feyen,et al.  Effect of scale and dimensionality on the surfactant-enhanced solubilization of a residual DNAPL contamination. , 2004, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[30]  Arlen W. Harbaugh,et al.  A modular three-dimensional finite-difference ground-water flow model , 1984 .

[31]  D. Brandes,et al.  Importance of phase behavior on the removal of residual DNAPLs from porous media by alcohol flooding , 1993 .

[32]  D. N. Johnson,et al.  Efficient, near-complete removal of DNAPL from three-dimensional, heterogeneous porous media using a novel combination of treatment technologies. , 2004, Environmental science & technology.

[33]  J. H. Dane,et al.  Movement and Remediation of Trichloroethylene in a Saturated Heterogeneous Porous Medium 1. Spill Behavior and initial dissolution , 1999 .

[34]  T. E. Sawyer,et al.  Effect of cation exchange on surfactant-enhanced solubilization of trichloroethene , 2000 .

[35]  Cass T. Miller,et al.  Dissolution Fingering During the Solubilization of Nonaqueous Phase Liquids in Saturated Porous Media: 1. Model Predictions , 1996 .

[36]  Evangelos A. Voudrias,et al.  Dissolution of a Toluene Pool Under Constant and Variable Hydraulic Gradients with Implications for Aquifer Remediation , 1994 .

[37]  G. Heron,et al.  Pulsed Air Sparging in Aquifers Contaminated with Dense Nonaqueous Phase Liquids , 2002 .

[38]  Gary A. Pope,et al.  Influence of Viscous and Buoyancy Forces on the Mobilization of Residual Tetrachloroethylene during Surfactant Flushing , 1996 .

[39]  S. Powers,et al.  Non–aqueous phase liquid dissolution in heterogeneous systems: Mechanisms and a local equilibrium modeling approach , 1998 .

[40]  K. Hayes,et al.  Refinement of the density-modified displacement method for efficient treatment of tetrachloroethene source zones. , 2004, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[41]  S. Powers,et al.  Mass transfer correlations for nonaqueous phase liquid dissolution from regions with high initial saturations , 2003 .

[42]  Peter Grathwohl,et al.  Time scales of organic contaminant dissolution from complex source zones: coal tar pools vs. blobs. , 2002, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[43]  G. Michael Shook,et al.  Prediction and minimization of vertical migration of DNAPLS using surfactant enhanced aquifer remediation at neutral buoyancy , 1998 .

[44]  J. H. Dane,et al.  A constitutive model for air-NAPL-water flow in the vadose zone accounting for immobile, non-occluded (residual) NAPL in strongly water-wet porous media. , 2004, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[45]  J. H. Dane,et al.  Infiltration and Redistribution of Perchloroethylene in Stratified Water-Saturated Porous Media , 1998 .

[46]  L. Abriola,et al.  Soil and Groundwater Contamination: Nonaqueous Phase Liquids , 2006 .

[47]  Jack C. Parker,et al.  Recovery of light, non-aqueous phase liquid from porous media: laboratory experiments and model validation , 1997 .

[48]  Kent S. Udell,et al.  Nonaqueous phase liquid transport and cleanup: 1. Analysis of mechanisms , 1988 .

[49]  K. Jensen,et al.  Removal of NAPLs from the unsaturated zone using steam: prevention of downward migration by injecting mixtures of steam and air. , 2002, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[50]  G. R. Johnson,et al.  Influence of Heterogeneity and Sampling Method on Aqueous Concentrations Associated with NAPL Dissolution , 2000 .

[51]  S. Rogers,et al.  Influence of Porous Media, Airflow Rate, and Air Channel Spacing on Benzene NAPL Removal during Air Sparging , 2000 .

[52]  C. A. Ramsburg,et al.  Density-modified displacement for DNAPL source zone remediation: density conversion and recovery in heterogeneous aquifer cells. , 2002, Environmental science & technology.

[53]  Thomas C. Harmon,et al.  Measuring and modeling the dissolution of nonideally shaped dense nonaqueous phase liquid pools in saturated porous media , 2002 .

[54]  J. E. Smith,et al.  Comment on "Mobilization and entry of DNAPL pools into finer sand media by cosolvents: two-dimensional chamber studies" by Michael E. Van Valkenburg and Michael D. Annable. , 2004, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[55]  M. C. Brooks,et al.  Design of aquifer remediation systems: (2) estimating site-specific performance and benefits of partial source removal. , 2005, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[56]  L. Catalan,et al.  Application of gravity drainage to the recovery of residual LNAPL in homogeneous and lensed sand packs , 1995 .

[57]  D. Sabatini,et al.  Minimizing surfactant losses using twin-head anionic surfactants in subsurface remediation , 1993 .

[58]  Minghua Li,et al.  Dip-angle influence on areal DNAPL recovery by co-solvent flooding with and without pre-flooding. , 2006, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[59]  L. Thibodeaux,et al.  Relationships between micelle-water and octanol-water partition constants for hydrophobic organics of environmental interest , 1989 .

[60]  G. Heron,et al.  Soil heating for enhanced remediation of chlorinated solvents : A laboratory study on resistive heating and vapor extraction in a silty, low-permeable soil contaminated with trichloroethylene , 1998 .

[61]  W J Hunter,et al.  Use of vegetable oil in a pilot-scale denitrifying barrier. , 2001, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[62]  T. Illangasekare,et al.  Effect of groundwater flow dimensionality on mass transfer from entrapped nonaqueous phase liquid contaminants , 2000 .

[63]  I. Hua,et al.  Cosolvent-enhanced chemical oxidation of perchloroethylene by potassium permanganate. , 2006, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[64]  Scott F. Kaslusky,et al.  A theoretical model of air and steam co-injection to prevent the downward migration of DNAPLs during steam-enhanced extraction. , 2002, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[65]  K. Rathfelder,et al.  Surfactant enhanced recovery of tetrachloroethylene from a porous medium containing low permeability lenses. 2. Numerical simulation. , 2001, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[66]  B. Sleep,et al.  Removal of Perchloroethylene from a Layered Soil System by Steam Flushing , 1999 .

[67]  T. Harmon,et al.  Dissolution of a well‐defined trichloroethylene pool in saturated porous media: Experimental design and aquifer characterization , 2000 .

[68]  C. A. Ramsburg,et al.  Experimental and Economic Assessment of Two Surfactant Formulations for Source Zone Remediation at a Former Dry Cleaning Facility , 2001 .

[69]  J. H. Dane,et al.  Removal of Carbon Tetrachloride from a Layered Porous Medium by Means of Soil Vapor Extraction Enhanced by Desiccation and Water Table Reduction , 2005 .

[70]  T. Sale,et al.  Steady state mass transfer from single‐component dense nonaqueous phase liquids in uniform flow fields , 2001 .

[71]  K. M. Ritalahti,et al.  Detoxification of vinyl chloride to ethene coupled to growth of an anaerobic bacterium , 2003, Nature.

[72]  T H Illangasekare,et al.  A review of NAPL source zone remediation efficiency and the mass flux approach. , 2004, Journal of hazardous materials.

[73]  Lizette R. Chevalier,et al.  Literature Review of 2-D Laboratory Experiments in NAPL Flow, Transport, and Remediation , 1999 .

[74]  Evangelos A. Voudrias,et al.  DNAPL pool dissolution in saturated porous media: procedure development and preliminary results , 1994 .

[75]  T. E. Sawyer,et al.  Laboratory Investigation of Surfactant‐Enhanced Trichloroethene Solubilization Using Single‐Well, “Push‐Pull” Tests , 1999 .

[76]  Cass T. Miller,et al.  Remediation of DNAPL-Contaminated Subsurface Systems Using Density-Motivated Mobilization , 2000 .

[77]  DNAPL mass transfer and permeability reduction during in situ chemical oxidation with permanganate , 2004 .

[78]  Linda M Abriola,et al.  Effects of ethanol addition on micellar solubilization and plume migration during surfactant enhanced recovery of tetrachloroethene. , 2004, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[79]  Susan E. Powers,et al.  An experimental investigation of nonaqueous phase liquid dissolution in saturated subsurface systems: Transient mass transfer rates , 1992 .

[80]  B. Chowdhry,et al.  Investigation of the wetting behavior of coal tar in three phase systems and its modification by poloxamine block copolymeric surfactants. , 2004, Environmental science & technology.

[81]  R. Falta,et al.  DNAPL to LNAPL Transitions During Horizontal Cosolvent Flooding , 2001 .

[82]  G. Tick,et al.  Dissolution of nonuniformly distributed immiscible liquid: intermediate-scale experiments and mathematical modeling. , 2002, Environmental science & technology.

[83]  E. Poeter,et al.  Documentation of UCODE; a computer code for universal inverse modeling , 1998 .

[84]  N. Sitar,et al.  Mobilization of trichloroethene (TCE) during ethanol flooding in uniform and layered sand packs under confined conditions , 1999 .

[85]  Scott F. Kaslusky,et al.  Co-injection of air and steam for the prevention of the downward migration of DNAPLs during steam enhanced extraction: an experimental evaluation of optimum injection ratio predictions. , 2005, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[86]  J. H. Dane,et al.  Infiltration and redistribution of perchloroethylene in partially saturated, stratified porous media , 1998 .

[87]  B. Kueper,et al.  Removal of pooled dense, nonaqueous phase liquid from saturated porous media using upward gradient alcohol floods , 1997 .

[88]  B. Kueper,et al.  Risk Reduction during Chemical Flooding: Preconditioning DNAPL Density In Situ Prior to Recovery by Miscible Displacement , 1999 .

[89]  K. Soga,et al.  Effect of NAPL entrapment conditions on air sparging remediation efficiency. , 2004, Journal of hazardous materials.

[90]  Clifford K. Ho,et al.  An experimental investigation of air venting of volatile liquid hydrocarbon mixtures from homogeneous and heterogeneous porous media , 1992 .

[91]  Calvin C. Chien,et al.  A Modeling and experimental study of light nonaqueous phase liquid (LNAPL) accumulation in wells and LNAPL recovery from wells , 2000 .

[92]  Mart Oostrom,et al.  Movement and remediation of trichloroethylene in a saturated, heterogeneous porous medium: 2. Pump-and-treat and surfactant flushing , 1999 .

[93]  In-situ oxidation of trichloroethene by permanganate: effects on porous medium hydraulic properties. , 2001, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[94]  D. Ahlfeld,et al.  Laboratory Study of Air Sparging: Air Flow Visualization , 1993 .

[95]  Ulrich Fischer,et al.  Experimental and Numerical Investigation of Soil Vapor Extraction , 1996 .

[96]  K. Hayes,et al.  Use of a surfactant-stabilized emulsion to deliver 1-butanol for density-modified displacement of trichloroethene. , 2003, Environmental science & technology.

[97]  Richard G. Luthy,et al.  SOLUBILIZATION OF POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBONS IN MICELLAR NONIONIC SURFACTANT SOLUTIONS , 1991 .

[98]  J. H. Dane,et al.  Surfactant enhanced recovery of tetrachloroethylene from a porous medium containing low permeability lenses. 1. Experimental studies. , 2001, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[99]  K. Novakowski,et al.  Humic acid enhanced remediation of an emplaced diesel source in groundwater. 1. Laboratory-based pilot scale test. , 2002, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[100]  R. Glass,et al.  Bench-scale visualization of DNAPL remediation processes in analog heterogeneous aquifers: surfactant floods and in situ oxidation using permanganate. , 2002, Journal of contaminant hydrology.

[101]  X. D. Li,et al.  DNAPL remediation with in situ chemical oxidation using potassium permanganate. II. Increasing removal efficiency by dissolving Mn oxide precipitates. , 2004, Journal of contaminant hydrology.