The cognitive approach to motivation in retarded individuals

Publisher Summary This chapter describes a conceptual framework for bridging the gap between motivation and cognition that may contribute to research on the role of motivational factors in the functioning of mentally retarded individuals. The chapter demonstrates that there are sizable individual differences in mentally retarded persons about behaviors often considered as main characteristics differentiating between mentally retarded and nonretarded groups. Though mental retardation may affect motivation, it does not eliminate motivation and does not even limit it. The cognitive motivation in retarded persons suggests that it is the cognitive processing of inputs that determines the impact that any external and internal force or condition will have on behavior. Cognitive orientation measures may be expected to help identify those individuals who, for motivational reasons, may benefit most or least from the available programs, services, or training. Further research is required to clarify techniques, processes, and outcomes of new approaches to changing behavior in retarded persons.

[1]  M. Seligman,et al.  Learned helplessness in humans: critique and reformulation. , 1978, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[2]  I. Bialer,et al.  FAILURE AS MOTIVATION WITH MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN. , 1965, American journal of mental deficiency.

[3]  David E. Hunt,et al.  Intrinsic Motivation: A New Direction in Education , 1971 .

[4]  H. Levine,et al.  Everyday cognition among mildly mentally retarded adults: an ethnographic approach. , 1985, American journal of mental deficiency.

[5]  C. Sigelman,et al.  Surveying mentally retarded persons: responsiveness and response validity in three samples. , 1980, American journal of mental deficiency.

[6]  R. Kail,et al.  Perspectives on the development of memory and cognition , 1977 .

[7]  H. Kreitler,et al.  The cognitive determinants of defensive behaviour. , 1972, The British journal of social and clinical psychology.

[8]  Cognitive orientation and changing the impulsivity of children. , 1984, The British journal of educational psychology.

[9]  E. Zigler,et al.  Cognitive orientation and curiosity. , 1974 .

[10]  S. Harter,et al.  Assessment of perceived competence, motivational orientation, and anxiety in segregated and mainstreamed educable mentally retarded children. , 1985 .

[11]  Harris Lm.  A method for studying and treating behavior problems in the school room. , 1955 .

[12]  I. Bialer.  Conceptualization of success and failure in mentally retarded and normal children1 , 1961 .

[13]  A. MacEachron.  Mentally retarded offenders: prevalence and characteristics. , 1979, American journal of mental deficiency.

[14]  B. Weiner,et al.  Perceiving the Causes of Success and Failure , 1989 .

[15]  R. Schwartz,et al.  The cognitive orientation of expressive communicability in schizophrenics and normals. , 1987, Journal of communication disorders.

[16]  E. Zigler,et al.  Impact of institutional experience on the behavior and development of retarded persons. , 1977, American journal of mental deficiency.

[17]  B. Keogh,et al.  Normal and Retarded Children's Expectancy for Failure. , 1971 .

[18]  E. Zigler,et al.  Social deprivation and the performance of retarded and normal children on a satiation type task. , 1962, Child development.

[19]  E. Zigler,et al.  The effect of support and nonsupport on the performance of normal and feebleminded children. , 1958, Journal of personality.

[20]  T. Webster.  Problems of emotional development in young retarded children. , 1963, The American journal of psychiatry.

[21]  E. Zigler,et al.  Cue-learning and problem-learning strategies in normal and retarded children. , 1968, Child development.

[22]  E. Zigler,et al.  A longitudinal investigation of the relationship between preinstitutional social deprivation and social motivation in institutionalized retardates. , 1968, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[23]  H. Klausmeier,et al.  Anxiety, intelligence, and achievement in children of low, average, and high intelligence. , 1962, Child development.

[24]  M. Gold.  Factors affecting production by the retarded: base rate. , 1973, Mental retardation.

[25]  E. Zigler,et al.  Concept-switching in middle-class, lower-class and retarded children. , 1962, Journal of abnormal and social psychology.

[26]  R. Edgerton,et al.  The cloak of competence: years later. , 1976, American journal of mental deficiency.

[27]  F. Weizmann,et al.  The Structuring of experience , 1977 .

[28]  R. Kahoe.  Motivation‐Hygiene Aspects of Vocational Indecision and College Achievement , 1966 .

[29]  W. P. Burke,et al.  Development of Individual Differences in Intrinsic Motivation , 1977 .

[30]  E. Zigler,et al.  Developmental Course of Responsiveness to Social Reinforcement in Normal Children and Institutionalized Retarded Children. , 1972 .

[31]  Haywood Hc,et al.  Differential effects of motivational orientations and incentive conditions on motor performance in institutionalized retardates. , 1967 .

[32]  J. Stark.  Mental retardation and mental health : classification, diagnosis, treatment, services , 1988 .

[33]  Adjustment of intellectually below-average men not identified as mentally retarded. , 1978, Scandinavian journal of psychology.

[34]  F. Menolascino.  The Mentally Retarded Offender. , 1974 .

[35]  R. Nisbett.  Taste, deprivation, and weight determinants of eating behavior. , 1968, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[36]  Victoria Seitz,et al.  Motivational Factors in the Performance of Economically Disadvantaged Children on the Peabody Picture Vocabulary Test. , 1973 .

[37]  C. Schull,et al.  Vocational interest evaluation of TMR adults. , 1981, American journal of mental deficiency.

[38]  Hirsch Ea.  The adaptive significance of commonly described behavior of the mentally retarded. , 1959 .

[39]  E. Zigler,et al.  Learned helplessness and the retarded child , 1982 .

[40]  S. Schachter,et al.  Some extraordinary facts about obese humans and rats. , 1971, The American psychologist.

[41]  R. Carasso,et al.  Cognitive orientation as predictor of pain relief following acupuncture , 1987, Pain.

[42]  S. Kreitler,et al.  The theory of cognitive orientation: widening the scope of behavior prediction. , 1982, Progress in experimental personality research.

[43]  M. Byck.  Cognitive differences among diagnostic groups of retardates. , 1968, American journal of mental deficiency.

[44]  J. Kounin,et al.  EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF RIGIDITY , 1941 .

[45]  E. Zigler,et al.  Outerdirectedness in the Problem-Solving of Institutionalized and Noninstitutionalized Normal and Retarded Children. , 1971 .

[46]  T. Wachs,et al.  Size-discrimination learning as a function of motivation-hygiene orientation in adolescents. , 1966, Journal of educational psychology.

[47]  P. S. Siegel.  Incentive Motivation in the Mental Retardate , 1968 .

[48]  D. Harris,et al.  Age and other correlates of self-concept in children. , 1964 .

[49]  P. Watson,et al.  Frustrative nonreward theory applied to children's behavior. , 1968, Psychological bulletin.

[50]  E. Zigler,et al.  Effectiveness of adult and peer reinforcement on the performance of institutionalized and noninstitutionalized retardates. , 1968, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[51]  E. Zigler,et al.  Rigidity, negative reaction tendencies, and cosatiation effects in normal and feebleminded children. , 1961, Journal of abnormal and social psychology.

[52]  L. Eisenberg.  Child psychiatry: mental deficiency. , 1962, The American journal of psychiatry.

[53]  L. T. Taft.  Mental retardation: an overview. , 1973, Pediatric annals.

[54]  T. Lobel.  The Prediction of Behavior from Different Types of Beliefs , 1982 .

[55]  M. Rosen,et al.  Investigating the phenomenon of helplessness in mentally retarded adults. , 1975, American journal of mental deficiency.

[56]  J. Tramontana.  Social versus edible rewards as a function of intellectual level and socioeconomic class. , 1972, American journal of mental deficiency.

[57]  R. Strauss,et al.  PERSONALITY VARIABLES AS DETERMINERS OF ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT OF THE MILDLY RETARDED. , 1965, Mental retardation.

[58]  J. Wish,et al.  What retarded adults believe about sex. , 1979, American journal of mental deficiency.

[59]  S. Kreitler,et al.  Schizophrenic Perception and its Psychopathological Implications: A Microgenetic Study , 1986 .

[60]  J. Weisz.  Perceived Control and Learned Helplessness among Mentally Retarded and Nonretarded Children: A Developmental Analysis. , 1979 .

[61]  S. Bradley-Johnson,et al.  Token reinforcement during WISC-R administration. II. Effects on mildly retarded, black students. , 1984, Applied research in mental retardation.

[62]  Cleland Cc,et al.  Manifest anxiety of retardates and normals matched as to academic achievement. , 1963 .

[63]  J. Gifford,et al.  Autonomy and Adaptability in Work Behavior of Retarded Clients , 1984 .

[64]  H. Carl Haywood,et al.  Intrinsic Motivation and Behavior Effectiveness in Retarded Persons , 1986 .

[65]  E. Zigler,et al.  Expectancy of success and the probability learning of retarded children. , 1971, Journal of abnormal psychology.

[66]  W. Reynolds,et al.  Depression and learned helplessness in mentally retarded and nonmentally retarded adolescents: an initial investigation. , 1985, Applied research in mental retardation.

[67]  W. Walker.  Prognosis of Mental Subnormals , 1962, Mental Health.

[68]  H. Levine.  Situational anxiety and everyday life experiences of mildly mentally retarded adults. , 1985, American journal of mental deficiency.

[69]  J. Kounin.  EXPERIMENTAL STUDIES OF RIGIDITY. II. THE EXPLANATORY POWER OF THE CONCEPT OF RIGIDITY AS APPLIED TO FEEBLE-MINDEDNESS , 1941 .

[70]  R. W. White.  Motivation reconsidered: the concept of competence. , 1959, Psychological review.

[71]  J. Gottlieb,et al.  Projection of affect after task performance by retarded and nonretarded children. , 1972, American journal of mental deficiency.

[72]  M. Sternlight.  A THEORETICAL MODEL FOR THE PSYCHOLOGICAL TREATMENT OF MENTAL RETARDATION. , 1964, American journal of mental deficiency.

[73]  M. Cohen,et al.  Retarded adult's discrete work performance in a sheltered workshop as a function of overall productivity and motivation. , 1975, American journal of mental deficiency.

[74]  E. Zigler,et al.  Developmental and experiential determinants of self-image disparity in institutionalized and noninstitutionalized retarded and normal children. , 1972, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[75]  Shulamith Kreitler,et al.  The motivational and cognitive determinants of individual planning. , 1987 .

[76]  E. Zigler,et al.  The Assessment of Effectance Motivation in Normal and Retarded Children. , 1974 .

[77]  R. B. Mccarver,et al.  Placement of the Retarded in the Community: Prognosis and Outcome , 1974 .

[78]  C. S. Hayes,et al.  Affective reactions of retarded and nonretarded children to success and failure. , 1976, American journal of mental deficiency.

[79]  S. Harter,et al.  Development perspectives on the self-system , 1983 .