STATE-OF-THE-ART AND RESEARCH PRIORITIES IN HYDROGEN SAFETY

Wide spread deployment and use of hydrogen and fuel cell technologies can occur only if hydrogen safety issues have been addressed in order to ensure that hydrogen fuel presents the same or lower level of hazards and associated risk compared to conventional fuel technologies. To achieve this goal, hydrogen safety research should be directed to address the remaining knowledge gaps using risk-informed approaches to develop engineering solutions and Regulation Codes and Standards (RCS) requirements that meet individual and societal risk acceptance criteria, yet are cost-effective and market-competitive. IA HySafe and JRC IET partnered to organize a Research Priorities Workshop in Berlin on October 16-17, 2012 hosted by BAM (on behalf of IA HySafe) to address knowledge gaps in CFD modelling of hydrogen safety issues. The findings of the workshop are described in the report. The document aims to become a reference document for researchers/scientists and technical (including industry) experts working in the area worldwide. It is also a welcomed contribution for the Fuel Cell and Hydrogen Joint Undertaking (FCH JU) and for other funding bodies/organizations that must make decisions on research programmes and during the selection/choice of projects to be financially supported pursuing the safe use of hydrogen within Horizon 2020 framework. L D -N A -2 6 3 4 4 -E N -N

[1]  Golub,et al.  HYDROGEN SELF-IGNITION IN PRESSURE RELIEF DEVICES , 2009 .

[2]  L. Bauwens,et al.  Simulation of shock-initiated ignition , 2010 .

[3]  Y. Chabal,et al.  Materials for Hydrogen Storage , 2015 .

[4]  A. G. Venetsanos,et al.  Evaluation of notional nozzle approaches for CFD simulations of free-shear under-expanded hydrogen jets , 2012 .

[5]  Jeffrey L. LaChance,et al.  Analyses to support development of risk-informed separation distances for hydrogen codes and standards. , 2009 .

[6]  William G. Houf,et al.  Hydrogen fuel-cell forklift vehicle releases in enclosed spaces , 2013 .

[7]  C. B. Ludwig,et al.  Handbook of infrared radiation from combustion gases , 1973 .

[8]  James D. Colton,et al.  Large-scale hydrogen deflagrations and detonations , 2007 .

[9]  M. Heitsch,et al.  An intercomparison of CFD models to predict lean and non-uniform hydrogen mixture explosions , 2010 .

[10]  Milan Janic,et al.  Is liquid hydrogen a solution for mitigating air pollution by airports , 2010 .

[11]  John H. S. Lee,et al.  Influence of confinement on flame acceleration due to repeated obstacles , 1983 .

[12]  Michael A. Delichatsios,et al.  Numerical studies of dispersion and flammable volume of hydrogen in enclosures , 2010 .

[13]  Jennifer X. Wen,et al.  Numerical study on spontaneous ignition of direct release of pressurized hydrogen into air , 2008 .

[14]  W. Mérida,et al.  Modeling the Transient Temperature Distribution within a Hydrogen Cylinder during Refueling , 2007 .

[15]  I. Sochet,et al.  Detonability of fuel-oxygen and fuel-air mixtures , 1997 .

[16]  C. Law,et al.  Flame-acoustic resonance initiated by vortical disturbances , 2009, Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

[17]  Jennifer X. Wen,et al.  The effect of pressure boundary rupture rate on spontaneous ignition of pressurized hydrogen release , 2009 .

[18]  R. Knystautas,et al.  Turbulent flame propagation in obstacle-filled tubes , 1985 .

[19]  S. Yamashita,et al.  Feasibility Study of “CO2 Free Hydrogen Chain” Utilizing Australian Brown Coal Linked with CCS , 2012 .

[20]  Lee J.H.S.,et al.  Initiation of Gaseous Detonation , 1977 .

[21]  A. Kotchourko,et al.  EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF HYDROGEN-AIR DEFLAGRATIONS IN FLAT LAYER , 2007 .

[22]  Karl Verfondern,et al.  Experimental and theoretical investigation of liquid hydrogen pool spreading and vaporization , 1997 .

[23]  V. Kulikov,et al.  Combustion and detonation of hydrogenair mixtures in free spaces , 1983 .

[24]  Jongsoo Kim,et al.  Behavior of buoyancy and momentum controlled hydrogen jets and flames emitted into the quiescent atmosphere , 2009 .

[25]  Sadashige Horiguchi,et al.  Experimental investigation on the thermal properties of hydrogen jet flame and hot currents in the downstream region , 2008 .

[26]  O. Kircher,et al.  Validation of Cryo-compressed Hydrogen Storage ( CcH 2 ) – a Probabilistic Approach , 2011 .

[27]  Yasuhiro Ogami,et al.  Measurements of the laminar burning velocity of hydrogen–air premixed flames , 2010 .

[28]  M. F. Ivanov,et al.  Shock-induced ignition of hydrogen gas during accidental or technical opening of high-pressure tanks , 2007 .

[29]  Michael Epstein,et al.  Total flammable mass and volume within a vapor cloud produced by a continuous fuel-gas or volatile liquid-fuel release. , 2007, Journal of hazardous materials.

[30]  C. Law,et al.  An experimental investigation on self-acceleration of cellular spherical flames , 2013 .

[31]  J. Vrijling,et al.  An overview of quantitative risk measures for loss of life and economic damage. , 2003, Journal of hazardous materials.

[32]  G. Ciccarelli,et al.  Flame acceleration and transition to detonation in ducts , 2008 .

[33]  I. Jeung,et al.  A flow visualization study on self-ignition of high pressure hydrogen gas released into a tube , 2013 .

[34]  S. B. Dorofeev,et al.  Evaluation of the hydrogen explosion hazard , 1994 .

[35]  James C. Keck,et al.  Laminar burning velocities in stoichiometric hydrogen and hydrogenhydrocarbon gas mixtures , 1984 .

[36]  Yanlei Liu,et al.  Numerical study on fast filling of 70 MPa type III cylinder for hydrogen vehicle , 2012 .

[37]  Christophe Proust,et al.  Fire risk on high-pressure full composite cylinders for automotive applications , 2012 .

[38]  Sadashige Horiguchi,et al.  Experimental study on the hazards of high-pressure hydrogen jet diffusion flames , 2009 .

[40]  Pierre Bénard,et al.  Surface effects on flammable extent of hydrogen and methane jets , 2009 .

[41]  Spyros Sklavounos,et al.  Evaluation of hazards associated with hydrogen storage facilities , 2005 .

[42]  J. Gore,et al.  Turbulence/radiation interactions in nonpremixed hydrogen/air flames , 1989 .

[43]  E. Gutmark,et al.  Combustion instability related to vortex shedding in dump combustors and their passive control , 1992 .

[44]  Stephan Kelm,et al.  3D Modeling of the Different Boiling Regimes During Spill and Spreading of Liquid Hydrogen , 2012 .

[45]  Sadashige Horiguchi,et al.  Self-ignition and explosion during discharge of high-pressure hydrogen , 2008 .

[46]  Pierre Serre-Combe,et al.  Achievements of the EC Network of Excellence HYSAFE , 2011 .

[47]  T. Jordan,et al.  MODELING OF THE FLAME ACCELERATION IN FLAT LAYER FOR HYDROGEN-AIR MIXTURES , 2011 .

[48]  Jean-Marc Lacome,et al.  Processes of the formation of large unconfined clouds following a massive spillage of liquid hydrogen on the ground , 2007 .

[49]  Forman A. Williams,et al.  Burning velocity of turbulent premixed flames in a high-pressure environment , 1996 .

[50]  ANALYSIS OF THE PARAMETRIC-ACOUSTIC INSTABILITY FOR SAFETY ASSESSMENT OF HYDROGEN-AIR MIXTURES IN CLOSED VOLUMES , 2011 .

[51]  Francisco Espinosa-Loza,et al.  High-density automotive hydrogen storage with cryogenic capable pressure vessels , 2009 .

[52]  N. Eisenreich,et al.  MEASURING AND MODELLING UNSTEADY RADIATION OF HYDROGEN COMBUSTION , 2005 .

[53]  Jennifer X. Wen,et al.  Numerical study on spontaneous ignition of pressurized hydrogen release through a length of tube , 2009 .

[54]  W. Pitts,et al.  Dispersion and Burning Behavior of Hydrogen Released in a Full-Scale Residential Garage in the Presence and Absence of Conventional Automobiles - Supplemental Video Materials. , 2012, Journal of research of the National Institute of Standards and Technology.

[55]  H. Saitoh,et al.  Hazard evaluation of hydrogen–air deflagration with flame propagation velocity measurement by image velocimetry using brightness subtraction , 2007 .

[56]  Elaine S. Oran,et al.  Numerical simulations of flame propagation and DDT in obstructed channels filled with hydrogen–air mixture , 2007 .

[57]  R. Kumar,et al.  Vented Explosion of Hydrogen-Air Mixtures in a Large Volume , 1989 .

[58]  Vladimir Molkov,et al.  Vented gaseous deflagrations with inertial vent covers: State‐of‐the‐art and progress , 2004 .

[60]  G. Searby Acoustic Instability in Premixed Flames , 1992 .

[61]  The role of instabilities on ignition of unsteady hydrogen jets flowing into an oxidizer , 2013 .

[62]  Jeffrey L. LaChance,et al.  Development of uniform harm criteria for use in quantitative risk analysis of the hydrogen infrastructure , 2011 .

[63]  Mariarosa Giardina,et al.  Analysis of operator human errors in hydrogen refuelling stations: Comparison between human rate assessment techniques , 2013 .

[64]  F. P. Ricou,et al.  Measurements of entrainment by axisymmetrical turbulent jets , 1961, Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

[65]  Byung-Il Choi,et al.  First-order perturbation solutions of liquid pool spreading with vaporization , 2011 .

[66]  I. Jeung,et al.  Experimental investigation on the self-ignition of pressurized hydrogen released by the failure of a rupture disk through tubes , 2011 .

[67]  E. U. Franck,et al.  Spectra and temperatures of diffusion flames at high pressures to 1000 bar , 1994 .

[68]  Martin Pitt Loss prevention and safety promotion in the process industries , 1996 .

[69]  S. Dorofeev,et al.  DDT in a smooth tube filled with a hydrogen–oxygen mixture , 2005 .

[70]  D. Makarov,et al.  Hydrogen-air deflagrations in open atmosphere: Large eddy simulation analysis of experimental data , 2007 .

[71]  Mark Royle,et al.  The safety of the future hydrogen economy , 2011 .

[72]  A. K. Oppenheim,et al.  Experimental observations of the transition to detonation in an explosive gas , 1966, Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. Series A. Mathematical and Physical Sciences.

[73]  J. R. Travis,et al.  A homogeneous non-equilibrium two-phase critical flow model , 2012 .

[75]  K. Verfondern,et al.  Simulation of accidental spills of cryogenic hydrogen in a residential area , 1994 .

[76]  Xiangmin Pan,et al.  Comparison of the harm effects of accidental releases: Cryo-compressed hydrogen versus natural gas , 2013 .

[77]  Thomas A Blake,et al.  Absolute integrated intensities of vapor-phase hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) in the mid-infrared at atmospheric pressure , 2009, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[78]  J. G. Bartzis,et al.  CFD modeling of large-scale LH2 spills in open environment , 2007 .

[79]  Dmitriy Makarov,et al.  An inter-comparison exercise on CFD model capabilities to simulate hydrogen deflagrations in a tunnel , 2009 .

[80]  Markus Raffel,et al.  On the applicability of background oriented optical tomography for large scale aerodynamic investigations , 2000 .

[81]  T. Jordan,et al.  Flammability limits and laminar flame speed of hydrogen–air mixtures at sub-atmospheric pressures , 2012 .

[82]  HYDROGEN DETECTION: VISUALISATION OF HYDROGEN USING NON INVASIVE OPTICAL SCHLIEREN TECHNIQUE BOS , 2005 .

[83]  A. Heidari,et al.  Flame acceleration and transition from deflagration to detonation in hydrogen explosions , 2014 .

[84]  F. P. Boynton,et al.  A BAND-RATIO TECHNIQUE FOR DETERMINING TEMPERATURES AND CONCENTRATIONS OF HOT COMBUSTION GASES FROM INFRARED-EMISSION SPECTRA, , 1965 .

[85]  J. Devaal,et al.  Development of Safety Criteria for Potentially Flammable Discharges from Hydrogen Fuel Cell Vehicles , 2007 .

[86]  Pierre Bénard,et al.  Numerical investigation of the flammable extent of semi-confined hydrogen and methane jets , 2011 .

[88]  EXPERIMENTAL STUDY OF HYDROGEN RELEASES COMBUSTION , 2009 .

[89]  J. Wen,et al.  Numerical study of spontaneous ignition in pressurized hydrogen release through a length of tube with local contraction , 2012 .

[90]  EVALUATION OF OPTICAL AND SPECTROSCOPIC EXPERIMENTS OF HYDROGEN JET FIRES , 2009 .

[91]  William G. Houf,et al.  Simulation of high-pressure liquid hydrogen releases , 2013 .

[92]  E. Oran Astrophysical combustion , 2004 .

[93]  K. Verfondern,et al.  Pool spreading and vaporization of liquid hydrogen , 2007 .

[94]  Brett Lois,et al.  Use of Hydrogen Safety Sensors Under Anaerobic Conditions – Impact of Oxygen Content on Sensor Performance , 2011 .

[95]  W. Moritz,et al.  Low energy hydrogen sensor , 2012 .

[96]  A. C. Day,et al.  Statistical analysis of electrostatic spark ignition of lean H2/O2/Ar mixtures , 2011 .

[97]  A. Boretti Modelling auto ignition of hydrogen in a jet ignition pre-chamber , 2010 .

[98]  Kendrick Aung,et al.  Flame stretch interactions of laminar premixed hydrogen/air flames at normal temperature and pressure , 1997 .

[99]  Chung King Law,et al.  The transient start of supersonic jets , 2006, Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

[100]  D. Baraldi,et al.  Numerical investigations on the fast filling of hydrogen tanks , 2011 .

[101]  Tetsuji Okamura,et al.  Observation of liquid hydrogen jet on flashing and evaporation characteristics , 2008 .

[102]  Olav R. Hansen,et al.  Loss Prevention and Safety Promotion in the Process Industries , 2004 .

[103]  William G. Houf,et al.  Predicting radiative heat fluxes and flammability envelopes from unintended releases of hydrogen , 2007 .

[104]  T. Jordan,et al.  Experimental investigation of fast flame propagation in stratified hydrogen–air mixtures in semi-confined flat layers , 2013 .

[105]  R. Dobashi,et al.  Fundamental study on accidental explosion behavior of hydrogen-air mixtures in an open space , 2013 .

[106]  Toshio Mogi,et al.  Control of the ignition possibility of hydrogen by electrostatic discharge at a ventilation duct outlet , 2009 .

[107]  K. Vaagsaether SIMULATION OF DDT IN HYDROGEN-AIR BEHIND A SINGLE OBSTACLE , 2011 .

[108]  D. Willoughby,et al.  Safety studies on high-pressure hydrogen vehicle refuelling stations: Releases into a simulated high-pressure dispensing area , 2012 .

[109]  Wolfgang Rodi,et al.  Vertical turbulent buoyant jets : a review of experimental data , 1980 .

[110]  K. Pehr,et al.  Aspects of safety and acceptance of LH2 tank systems in passenger cars , 1996 .

[111]  E. Tzimas,et al.  The evolution of size and cost of a hydrogen delivery infrastructure in Europe in the medium and long term , 2007 .

[112]  V. I. Alekseev,et al.  Experimental study of flame acceleration and the deflagration-to-detonation transition under conditions of transverse venting , 2001 .

[113]  B. Cariteau,et al.  Experimental study of the concentration build-up regimes in an enclosure without ventilation , 2012 .

[114]  E. Studer,et al.  High pressure hydrogen fires , 2011 .

[115]  Byung-Il Choi,et al.  High-order perturbation solutions to a LH2 spreading model with continuous spill , 2012 .

[116]  A. Koichi Hayashi,et al.  Numerical analysis on auto-ignition of a high pressure hydrogen jet spouting from a tube , 2009 .

[117]  Acosta Iborra Beatriz,et al.  Validation of CFD Models for Hydrogen Fast Filling Simulations , 2011 .

[118]  C. J. Lea,et al.  A protocol for the evaluation of LNG vapour dispersion models , 2013 .

[119]  N. Eisenreich,et al.  Fast Emission Spectroscopy for a Better Understanding of Pyrotechnic Combustion Behavior , 2005 .

[120]  J. Puttock,et al.  Vented confined explosions involving methane/ hydrogen mixtures , 2011 .

[121]  Jun Ishimoto,et al.  Integrated numerical prediction of atomization process of liquid hydrogen jet , 2008 .

[122]  D. B. Willoughby,et al.  EXPERIMENTAL RELEASES OF LIQUID HYDROGEN , 2011 .

[123]  M. F. Ivanov,et al.  Mechanisms of high-pressure hydrogen gas self-ignition in tubes , 2008 .

[124]  M. F. Ivanov,et al.  DEFLAGRATION-TO-DETONATION TRANSITION IN HYDROGEN OXYGEN MIXTURE WITH A DETAILED CHEMICAL REACTION MECHANISM , 2011 .

[126]  S. Frolov,et al.  Self-ignition of hydrocarbon–hydrogen–air mixtures , 2013 .

[127]  M. Radulescu,et al.  Ignition limits of rapidly expanding diffusion layers: Application to unsteady hydrogen jets , 2011 .

[128]  M. F. Ivanov,et al.  Experimental and numerical investigation of hydrogen gas auto-ignition , 2009 .

[129]  W. Breitung,et al.  Non-Boussinesq Integral Model for Horizontal Turbulent Buoyant Round Jets , 2009 .

[130]  J. R. Travis,et al.  Ignition and heat radiation of cryogenic hydrogen jets , 2012 .

[131]  D. Schmidt,et al.  Numerical simulation of hydrogen gas releases between buildings , 1999 .

[132]  D. Crowl,et al.  Explosion characteristics of hydrogen‐air mixtures in a spherical vessel , 2009 .

[133]  A. D. Birch,et al.  Velocity Decay of High Pressure Jets , 1987 .

[134]  J. Leyer,et al.  Development of vibratory flame propagation in short closed tubes and vessels , 1971 .

[135]  C. Westbrook,et al.  A comprehensive modeling study of hydrogen oxidation , 2004 .

[136]  I. Tkatschenko,et al.  Experiments on the distribution of concentration due to buoyant gas low flow rate release in an enclosure , 2011 .

[137]  N. Tsuboi,et al.  Mechanism of high-pressure hydrogen auto-ignition when spouting into air , 2011 .

[138]  N. Eisenreich,et al.  On the Oxidation and Combustion of AlH3 a Potential Fuel for Rocket Propellants and Gas Generators , 2007 .

[139]  Prankul Middha,et al.  CFD calculations of gas leak dispersion and subsequent gas explosions: validation against ignited impinging hydrogen jet experiments. , 2010, Journal of hazardous materials.

[140]  Michael Royle,et al.  The interaction of hydrogen jet releases with walls and barriers , 2011 .

[141]  M. Heitsch,et al.  Prioritisation of Research and Development for modelling the safe production, storage, delivery and use of hydrogen , 2011 .

[142]  T. Gautam,et al.  Lift-Off Heights and Visible Lengths of Vertical Turbulent Jet Diffusion Flames in Still Air , 1984 .

[143]  Jeffrey L. LaChance,et al.  Early-Stage Quantitative Risk Assessment to Support Development of Codes and Standard Requirements for Indoor Fueling of Hydrogen Vehicles , 2012 .

[144]  Philip John Bowen,et al.  Laminar-burning velocities of hydrogen-air and hydrogen-methane-air mixtures : An experimental study , 2006 .

[145]  H. Pföurtner The effects of gas explosions in free and partially confined fuel/air mixtures , 1985 .

[146]  S. Hanna,et al.  Air quality model performance evaluation , 2004 .

[147]  Dispersion and catalytic ignition of hydrogen leaks within enclosed spaces , 2012 .

[148]  B. Cariteau,et al.  Experimental study of the effects of vent geometry on the dispersion of a buoyant gas in a small enclosure , 2013 .

[149]  H. Phylaktou,et al.  A Comparison between End-Vented and Side-Vented Gas Explosions in Large L/D Vessels , 1997 .

[150]  M. Hishida,et al.  Analysis of a Large Scale Liquid Hydrogen Dispersion Using the Multi-Phase Hydrodynamics Analysis Code (CHAMPAGNE) , 2002 .

[151]  Norman A. Eisenberg,et al.  Vulnerability model. A simulation system for assessing damage resulting from marine spills. Final report , 1975 .

[152]  Christophe Proust,et al.  Dynamics of vented hydrogen-air deflagrations , 2011 .

[153]  W. Houf,et al.  Hydrogen and fuel cell stationary applications : key findings of modelling and experimental work in the hyper project , 2011 .

[154]  D. Whitehouse,et al.  Combustion of stratified hydrogen-air mixtures in the 10.7 m3 combustion test facility cylinder , 1996 .

[155]  Wolfgang Breitung,et al.  Experimental study of ignited unsteady hydrogen jets into air , 2011 .

[156]  Shirvill CHARACTERISATION OF THE HAZARDS FROM JET RELEASES OF HYDROGEN , 2005 .

[157]  S. Dorofeev,et al.  Effect of hydrogen concentration on vented explosion overpressures from lean hydrogen–air deflagrations , 2012 .

[158]  M. Carcassi,et al.  Hydrogen–methane mixtures: Dispersion and stratification studies , 2014 .

[159]  J. Chaineaux,et al.  Large scale characterization of the concentration field of supercritical jets of hydrogen and methane , 1996 .

[160]  W. Pitts,et al.  Natural and forced ventilation of buoyant gas released in a full-scale garage: Comparison of model predictions and experimental data , 2012 .

[161]  Kotchourko,et al.  THE CORRELATION METHOD TO ANALYZE THE GAS MIXING PROCESS ON THE BASIS OF BOS METHOD , 2011 .

[162]  M. G. Dodson,et al.  The Structure and Concentration Decay of High Pressure Jets of Natural Gas , 1984 .

[163]  A. Dahoe Laminar burning velocities of hydrogen–air mixtures from closed vessel gas explosions , 2005 .

[164]  E. Studer,et al.  Properties of large-scale methane/hydrogen jet fires , 2009 .

[165]  Josette Bellan,et al.  Global analysis and parametric dependencies for potential unintended hydrogen-fuel releases , 2006 .

[166]  Xianxin Liu,et al.  Numerical simulation of temperature rise within hydrogen vehicle cylinder during refueling , 2010 .

[167]  D. Makarov,et al.  Dynamics of flammable hydrogen-air mixture formation in an enclosure with a single vent , 2011 .

[168]  W. Houf,et al.  Self-ignition of hydrogen releases through electrostatic discharge induced by entrained particulates , 2012 .

[169]  Wolfgang Breitung,et al.  Evaluation of limits for effective flame acceleration in hydrogen mixtures , 2001 .

[170]  Mathieu Ichard,et al.  Validation of CFD modelling of LH2 spread and evaporation against large-scale spill experiments , 2011 .

[171]  Vladimir Molkov,et al.  Transition of Spontaneously Ignited Hydrogen Release into a Jet Fire , 2009 .

[172]  William G. Houf,et al.  Analytical and experimental investigation of small-scale unintended releases of hydrogen , 2008 .

[173]  John H. S. Lee,et al.  On The Transition from Deflagration to Detonation , 1992 .

[174]  S. Golovastov,et al.  The influence of diaphragm rupture rate on spontaneous self-ignition of pressurized hydrogen: Experimental investigation , 2012 .

[175]  N. Chaumeix,et al.  Influence of Hydrogen distribution on flame propagation , 2007 .

[176]  Baraldi Daniele,et al.  IA-Hysafe Standard Benchmark Exercise SBEP-V21: Hydrogen Release and Accumulation within a Non-Ventilated Ambient Pressure Garage at Low Release Rates , 2011 .

[177]  Vladimir Molkov,et al.  On the use of hydrogen in confined spaces: Results from the internal project InsHyde , 2011 .

[178]  Tadao Takeno,et al.  Effects of temperature and pressure on burning velocity , 1986 .

[179]  S. Dorofeev,et al.  Vented explosion overpressures from combustion of hydrogen and hydrocarbon mixtures , 2011 .

[180]  Zhenwei Zhao,et al.  An updated comprehensive kinetic model of hydrogen combustion , 2004 .

[181]  Jay P. Gore,et al.  Spectral and Total Radiation Properties of Turbulent Hydrogen/Air Diffusion Flames , 1987 .

[182]  M. Heitsch,et al.  An inter-comparison exercise on the capabilities of CFD models to predict the short and long term distribution and mixing of hydrogen in a garage , 2009 .

[183]  J. E. Chirivella,et al.  Experimental and analytical analyses of the mechanisms governing the dispersion of flammable clouds formed by liquid hydrogen spills , 1984 .

[184]  W. Schilling,et al.  Combustion and Diffusion Flames at High Pressures to 2000 bar , 1988 .

[185]  G. R. Astbury,et al.  Spontaneous ignition of hydrogen leaks: A review of postulated mechanisms , 2007 .

[186]  Norman Fenton,et al.  Risk Assessment and Decision Analysis with Bayesian Networks , 2012 .

[187]  G. N. Abramovich The Theory of Turbulent Jets , 2003 .

[188]  V. Molkov,et al.  Physics of spontaneous ignition of high-pressure hydrogen release and transition to jet fire , 2011 .

[189]  A G Venetsanos,et al.  Analysis of data from spilling experiments performed with liquid hydrogen. , 2000, Journal of hazardous materials.

[190]  William G. Houf,et al.  A study of barrier walls for mitigation of unintended releases of hydrogen , 2011 .

[191]  Jennifer X. Wen,et al.  The effect of an obstacle plate on the spontaneous ignition in pressurized hydrogen release: A numerical study , 2011 .

[192]  Dmitriy Makarov,et al.  Plane hydrogen jets , 2013 .

[193]  V. I. Alekseev,et al.  Effect of scale on the onset of detonations , 2000 .

[194]  S. Basu,et al.  Simultaneous water vapor concentration and temperature measurements in unsteady hydrogen flames , 2009 .

[195]  Seung Hoon,et al.  THE ANALYSIS OF FIRE TEST FOR THE HIGH PRESSURE COMPOSITE CYLINDER , 2009 .

[196]  W. Breitung,et al.  The structure and flame propagation regimes in turbulent hydrogen jets , 2011 .

[197]  P. Moin,et al.  Combustion instability due to the nonlinear interaction between sound and flame , 2003, Journal of Fluid Mechanics.

[198]  Vladimir Molkov,et al.  Towards hydrogen safety engineering for reacting and non-reacting hydrogen releases , 2013 .

[199]  V. Molkov,et al.  The Correlation for Non-Premixed Hydrogen Jet Flame Length in Still Air , 2011 .

[200]  K. Moodie,et al.  Structure and velocity measurements in underexpanded jets , 1986 .

[201]  A.J.C.M. Matthijsen,et al.  Safety Distances for Hydrogen Filling Stations , 2006 .

[202]  Paolo Dario,et al.  Experimental study of hydrogen releases in the passenger compartment of a Piaggio Porter , 2012 .

[203]  W. B. Benedick,et al.  FLAME facility: The effect of obstacles and transverse venting on flame acceleration and transition on detonation for hydrogen-air mixtures at large scale , 1989 .

[204]  T. Hirano,et al.  Modeling of vented hydrogen-air deflagrations and correlations for vent sizing , 1999 .

[205]  C. Sung,et al.  Ignition propensity of hydrogen/air mixtures impinging on a platinum stagnation surface , 2010 .

[206]  N. Eisenreich,et al.  Visualisation of jet fires from hydrogen release , 2011 .

[207]  R. Günther,et al.  Measurements of burning velocity in a flat flame front , 1972 .

[208]  河村 哲,et al.  見聞録 International Conference on Hydrogen Safety(ICHS)に参加して , 2012 .

[209]  T. Jordan,et al.  Experimental investigation of hydrogen–air deflagrations and detonations in semi-confined flat layers , 2013 .

[210]  Sung Chan Kim,et al.  Thermal characteristics during hydrogen fueling process of type IV cylinder , 2010 .

[211]  N. Eisenreich,et al.  On the kinetics of AlH3 decomposition and the subsequent Al oxidation , 2014 .

[212]  Manfred Wittig,et al.  The hydrogen value chain: applying the automotive role model of the hydrogen economy in the aerospace sector to increase performance and reduce costs , 2013 .

[213]  Ccps Guidelines for Chemical Process Quantitative Risk Analysis , 1999 .

[214]  Dedrick PREDICTIONS OF SOLID-STATE HYDROGEN STORAGE SYSTEM CONTAMINATION PROCESSES , 2009 .

[215]  D. Chang,et al.  Numerical and Experimental Study of Hydrogen Release from a High-Pressure Vessel , 2012 .

[216]  M. Heitsch,et al.  Numerical analysis of release, dispersion and combustion of liquid hydrogen in a mock-up hydrogen refuelling station , 2009 .

[217]  E. Studer,et al.  Experimental results on the dispersion of buoyant gas in a full scale garage from a complex source , 2011 .

[218]  Spyros Sklavounos,et al.  Fuel Gas Dispersion under Cryogenic Release Conditions , 2005 .

[219]  T. Kiyobayashi,et al.  Hazard assessment of complex hydrides as hydrogen storage materials , 2009 .

[220]  S. Verma,et al.  Flow and Acoustic Properties of Underexpanded Elliptic-Slot Jets , 2001 .

[221]  Jean-Marc Lacome,et al.  Large-scale hydrogen release in an isothermal confined area , 2011 .

[222]  Vladimir Molkov,et al.  Safety assessment of unignited hydrogen discharge from onboard storage in garages with low levels of natural ventilation , 2013 .

[223]  Xiangmin Pan,et al.  Study on the harm effects of releases from liquid hydrogen tank by consequence modeling , 2012 .

[224]  N. Eisenreich,et al.  Radiation Emitted from Rocket Plumes , 1997 .

[225]  J. Wen,et al.  Numerical study on the spontaneous ignition of pressurized hydrogen release through a tube into air , 2008 .

[226]  Sebastian Verhelst,et al.  Laminar burning velocities of lean hydrogen-air mixtures at pressures up to 1.0 MPa , 2007 .

[227]  Nancy Argüelles,et al.  Author ' s , 2008 .

[228]  Heuy Dong Kim,et al.  Three dimensional numerical computations on the fast filling of a hydrogen tank under different conditions , 2012 .

[229]  Charles K. Westbrook,et al.  Hydrogen Oxidation Kinetics in Gaseous Detonations , 1982 .

[230]  F. Dryer,et al.  SPONTANEOUS IGNITION OF PRESSURIZED RELEASES OF HYDROGEN AND NATURAL GAS INTO AIR , 2007 .

[231]  Krishna Kumar Vented Combustion Of Hydrogen -Air Mixtures In A Large Rectangular Volume , 2006 .

[232]  Haiyan Miao,et al.  Explosion characteristics of hydrogen–nitrogen–air mixtures at elevated pressures and temperatures , 2009 .

[233]  A. Teodorczyk FAST DEFLAGRATIONS AND DETONATIONS IN OBSTACLE-FILLED CHANNELS , 1995 .

[234]  P. Friis-Hansen,et al.  Risk modelling of a hydrogen refuelling station using Bayesian network , 2011 .

[235]  Prankul Middha,et al.  CFD computations of liquid hydrogen releases , 2012 .

[236]  C. Law,et al.  Effect of acoustic coupling on power-law flame acceleration in spherical confinement , 2013 .

[237]  Vishal Sethi,et al.  Hydrogen powered aircraft : The future of air transport , 2013 .

[238]  P. Bénard,et al.  Computational study of horizontal subsonic free jets of hydrogen: Validation and classical similarit , 2011 .

[239]  In-Seuck Jeung,et al.  Numerical study of spontaneous ignition of pressurized hydrogen released by the failure of a rupture disk into a tube , 2009 .

[240]  William G. Houf,et al.  Characterization of high-pressure, underexpanded hydrogen-jet flames , 2007 .

[241]  D.D.S. Liu,et al.  Laminar burning velocities of hydrogen-air and hydrogen-airsteam flames , 1983 .

[242]  M. Fichtner,et al.  Complex hydrides as solid storage materials: First safety tests , 2009 .