How Writing Came About

* Preface * Introduction: Tokens, a New Theory * The Myths * The Pictographic Theory * Tokens * Part One: The Evidence * What Are Tokens? * Types and Subtypes * Evolution from Plain to Complex Materials * Manufacture * The Token Collection under Study * Where Tokens Were Handled and Who Used Them * Types of Settlements * Distribution within Settlements * Structures * Token Clusters * Containers Holding Tokens * Associated Assemblages * Tokens as Funerary Offerings * Strings of Tokens and Envelopes * Strings of Tokens * Envelopes * Impressed Tablets * Number * Context * Chronology * Description * The Signs * Beyond the Impressed Tablets: Pictography * The Meaning of Signs and Their Corresponding Tokens * The Place of Impressed Tablets in the Evolution of Writing * Part Two: The Interpretation *The Evolution of Symbols in Prehistory * Symbols and Signs * Lower and Middle Paleolithic Symbols * Upper Paleolithic and Mesolithic Symbols * Neolithic Symbols * A Turning Point in Communication and Data Storage * Tokens: The Socioeconomic Implications * Reckoning Technology and Economy * Reckoning Technology and Social Organization * Counting and the Emergence of Writing * The Various Modes of Counting * The Sumerian Philological Evidence * The Near Eastern Archaeological Data * Conclusions: Tokens, Their Role in Prehistory and Their Contribution to Archaeology * Economy * Political Structure * Mathematics * Communication * Part Three: The Artifacts * Cones * Spheres * Disks * Cylinders * Tetrahedrons * Ovoids * Quadrangles * Triangles * Biconoids * Paraboloids * Bent Coils * Ovals/Rhomboids * Vessels * Tools * Animals * Miscellaneous * Notes * Glossary * Index