Variations in Collectivism and Individualism by Ingroup and Culture: Confirmatory Factor Analyses

Five models of collectivism and individualism, which varied by ingroup and measurement specification, were tested with confirmatory factor analyses. The sample consisted of 493 college students from South Korea and the United States, with U.S. students divided between Asian Americans and European Americans. Results indicated that collectivism and individualism are best represented by a 4-factor model with the latent variables Kin Collectivism (KC), in Individualism (KI), Nonkin Collectivism (N), and Nonkin Individualism (NI). KC and KI were strongly inversely related, but NC and NI were only moderately so. Whereas KC and NC were moderately related within each of the 3 student groups, KI and NI were moderately related only among Koreans and Asian Americans, and not among European Americans. Thus, the meanings of collectivism and individualism vary with ingroup and culture. Measurement, methodological, and conceptual implications are discussed.

[1]  Edgar F. Borgatta,et al.  Sociological Methodology, 1969. , 1969 .

[2]  R. Brislin.  Back-Translation for Cross-Cultural Research , 1970 .

[3]  Francis L. K. Hsu,et al.  Psychosocial Homeostasis and Jen: Conceptual Tools for Advancing Psychological Anthropology , 1971 .

[4]  Ronald S. Burt,et al.  Confirmatory Factor-Analytic Structures and the Theory Construction Process , 1973 .

[5]  B. Muthén,et al.  Assessing Reliability and Stability in Panel Models , 1977 .

[6]  P. Bentler,et al.  Significance Tests and Goodness of Fit in the Analysis of Covariance Structures , 1980 .

[7]  G. Bohrnstedt,et al.  Social Measurement: Current Issues , 1981 .

[8]  K. Gergen,et al.  Self-Concept, Advances in Theory and Research , 1981 .

[9]  E. Carmines,et al.  Analyzing models with unobserved variables: analysis of covariance structures , 1981 .

[10]  Kuo-shu Yang.  Social Orientation and Individual Modernity among Chinese Students in Taiwan , 1981 .

[11]  E. J. Bourne,et al.  Does the Concept of the Person Vary Cross-Culturally? , 1982 .

[12]  G. White,et al.  Cultural Conceptions of Mental Health and Therapy , 1982 .

[13]  M. Bond,et al.  College Students' Spontaneous Self-Concept , 1983 .

[14]  Yoshihisa Kashima,et al.  Acculturation Indices as a Means of Confirming Cultural Differences. Navy Recruit's Expectations of Productivity, Liking, and Intentions to Quit under Different Supervisors. , 1983 .

[15]  Amado M. Padilla,et al.  Acculturation: Theory, Models, And Some New Findings , 1983 .

[16]  M. Bond,et al.  Hofstede's Culture Dimensions , 1984 .

[17]  The ingroup and its relevance to individual behaviour: A study of collectivism and individualism. , 1985 .

[18]  Harry C. Triandis,et al.  The measurement of the etic aspects of individualism and collectivism across cultures , 1986 .

[19]  Harry C. Triandis,et al.  Individualism-Collectivism , 1986 .

[20]  J. Berry,et al.  Comparative Studies of Acculturative Stress 1 , 1987 .

[21]  Leslie A. Hayduk.  Structural equation modeling with LISREL: essentials and advances , 1987 .

[22]  Y. Kashima.  Conceptions of person: Implications in individualism/collectivism research. , 1987 .

[23]  J. Sinha,et al.  Structure of collectivism. , 1987 .

[24]  Ç. Kâğıtçıbaşı.  Individual and group loyalties: Are they compatible? , 1987 .

[25]  S. Schwartz,et al.  Toward A Universal Psychological Structure of Human Values , 1987 .

[26]  H. Triandis,et al.  Individualism and Collectivism: Cross-cultural Perspectives on Self-ingroup Relationships We Wish to Thank Our Research Collaborators for Stimulating Ideas, Data, and Moral Support in Carrying out a Complex Set of Studies. They , 2022 .

[27]  C. Hui.  Measurement of individualism-collectivism , 1988 .

[28]  Michael Harris Bond,et al.  Finding universal dimensions of individual variation in multicultural studies of values: The Rokeach and Chinese value surveys. , 1988 .

[29]  S. Cousins.  Culture and self-perception in Japan and the United States. , 1989 .

[30]  Kenneth A. Bollen,et al.  Structural Equations with Latent Variables , 1989 .

[31]  Kwok Leung,et al.  Cross-cultural differences: individual-level vs. culture-level analysis , 1989 .

[32]  Cigdem Kagitcibasi,et al.  Cross-Cultural Psychology: Current Research and Trends , 1989 .

[33]  S. Cousins.  Culture and selfhood in Japan and the U.S. , 1989 .

[34]  Michael Harris Bond,et al.  On the Empirical Identification of Dimensions for Cross-Cultural Comparisons , 1989 .

[35]  D. Watkins,et al.  The role of confirmatory factor analysis in cross-cultural research , 1989 .

[36]  Michael Harris Bond,et al.  Collectivism-Individualism in Everyday Social Life: The Middle Kingdom and the Melting Pot , 1989 .

[37]  H. Triandis.  Cross-cultural studies of individualism and collectivism. , 1989, Nebraska Symposium on Motivation. Nebraska Symposium on Motivation.

[38]  H. Triandis.  The Self and Social Behavior in Differing Cultural Contexts , 1989 .

[39]  S. Schwartz,et al.  Toward a theory of the universal content and structure of values: Extensions and cross-cultural replications. , 1990 .

[40]  S. Schwartz.  Individualism-Collectivism , 1990 .

[41]  H. Triandis,et al.  Multimethod probes of individualism and collectivism. , 1990 .

[42]  J. G. Miller,et al.  Perceptions of social responsibilities in India and in the United States: moral imperatives or personal decisions? , 1990, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[43]  D. Trafimow,et al.  Some tests of the distinction between the private self and the collective self. , 1991 .

[44]  H. Markus,et al.  Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. , 1991 .

[45]  Pierre R. Dasen,et al.  Cross-Cultural Psychology: Research and Applications , 1992 .

[46]  J. Gerton,et al.  Psychological impact of biculturalism: evidence and theory. , 1993, Psychological bulletin.

[47]  J. M. Salazar,et al.  An Etic-Emic Analysis of Individualism and Collectivism , 1993 .

[48]  J. S. Long,et al.  Testing Structural Equation Models , 1993 .

[49]  U. Kim,et al.  Indigenous analysis of collective representations: A Korean perspective. , 1993 .

[50]  D. Ho,et al.  Relational orientation in Asian social psychology. , 1993 .

[51]  John W. Berry,et al.  Indigenous psychologies: Research and experience in cultural context. , 1993 .

[52]  Joan G. Miller.  Cultural Diversity in the Morality of Caring: Individually Oriented Versus Duty-Based Interpersonal Moral Codes , 1994 .

[53]  J. Kihlstrom,et al.  The self as a knowledge structure. , 1994 .

[54]  Ç. Kâğıtçıbaşı.  A critical appraisal of individualism and collectivism: Toward a new formulation. , 1994 .

[55]  S. Yamaguchi,et al.  Collectivism among the Japanese: A perspective from the self. , 1994 .

[56]  S. Schwartz.  Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. , 1994 .

[57]  D. Carlston,et al.  Social cognition of the self. , 1994 .

[58]  Jae-Ho Cha,et al.  Aspects of individualism and collectivism in Korea. , 1994 .

[59]  Darius Chan.  COLINDEX: A refinement of three collectivism measures. , 1994 .

[60]  Chi-yue Chiu,et al.  Component ideas of individualism, collectivism, and social organization: An application in the study of Chinese culture. , 1994 .

[61]  R. C. Tripathi,et al.  Individualism in a collectivist culture: A case of coexistence of opposites. , 1994 .

[62]  R. Mishra.  Individualist and collectivist orientations across generations. , 1994 .

[63]  Stephen Bochner,et al.  Cross-Cultural Differences in the Self Concept , 1994 .

[64]  Patricia G. Devine,et al.  Social cognition: Impact on social psychology. , 1994 .

[65]  T. Singelis,et al.  The Measurement of Independent and Interdependent Self-Construals , 1994 .

[66]  H. K. Lee,et al.  Spontaneous self-descriptions and ethnic identities in individualistic and collectivistic cultures. , 1995, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[67]  H. Triandis.  Individualism And Collectivism , 1995 .

[68]  Harry C. Triandis,et al.  Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications. , 1996 .