Production of Biodiesel Using Palm Oil

Abstract For the past few years, advance research and development on biofuels production from renewable sources has been vehemently growing due to excessive burning of fossil fuel that caused several environmental issues, such as global warming. In addition, unstable petroleum price in the global market has accelerated the expansion of renewable biofuel industry, especially countries with abundant of oil-bearing or sugar-based crops. The use of biodiesel has been widely recognized due to its significant contributions in the reduction of greenhouse gases emission, specifically in transportation sector. Up to date, biodiesel can be derived from various oil-bearing crops (edible or nonedible) such as soybean, rapeseed, palm, sunflower, Jatropha curcas, and microalgae. This chapter focuses on palm biodiesel conversion technologies, including homogeneous, heterogeneous, enzymatic, noncatalytic supercritical alcohol, and ultrasound transesterification. Besides, optimum conditions, advantages, and limitations for each of the technology are discussed in detail. It is hoped that this chapter can provide a platform to researchers, policy makers, and industrial planners to synergize the opportunity of palm biodiesel production.

[1]  Wenlei Xie,et al.  Synthesis of Biodiesel from Soybean Oil using Heterogeneous KF/ZnO Catalyst , 2006 .

[2]  I. Tan,et al.  Preparation of oil palm empty fruit bunch-based activated carbon for removal of 2,4,6-trichlorophenol: optimization using response surface methodology. , 2009, Journal of hazardous materials.

[3]  Siew Hoong Shuit,et al.  OIL PALM BIOMASS AS A SUSTAINABLE ENERGY SOURCE: A MALAYSIAN CASE STUDY , 2009 .

[4]  Jusuke Hidaka,et al.  Calcium oxide as a solid base catalyst for transesterification of soybean oil and its application to biodiesel production , 2008 .

[5]  A. Kondo,et al.  Pretreatment of immobilized Candida antarctica lipase for biodiesel fuel production from plant oil. , 2000, Journal of bioscience and bioengineering.

[6]  Atsushi Takagaki,et al.  Esterification of higher fatty acids by a novel strong solid acid , 2006 .

[7]  B. Singh,et al.  High yield and conversion of biodiesel from a nonedible feedstock (Pongamia pinnata). , 2010, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[8]  Lawrence A. Johnson,et al.  Use of branched-chain esters to reduce the crystallization temperature of biodiesel , 1995 .

[9]  Yogesh Chandra Sharma,et al.  An ideal feedstock, kusum (Schleichera triguga) for preparation of biodiesel: Optimization of parameters , 2010 .

[10]  A. Vyas,et al.  A review on FAME production processes , 2010 .

[11]  Abdul Latif Ahmad,et al.  ADSORPTION OF BASIC DYE USING ACTIVATED CARBON PREPARED FROM OIL PALM SHELL: BATCH AND FIXED BED STUDIES , 2008 .

[12]  Yusof Basiron,et al.  Palm diesel: an option for greenhouse gas mitigation in the energy sector. , 2005 .

[13]  Steven Lim,et al.  Recent trends, opportunities and challenges of biodiesel in Malaysia: An overview , 2010 .

[14]  D. Darnoko,et al.  Kinetics of palm oil transesterification in a batch reactor , 2000 .

[15]  Jianli Wang,et al.  Preparation of biodiesel with the help of ultrasonic and hydrodynamic cavitation. , 2006, Ultrasonics.

[16]  S. Furuta,et al.  Biodiesel fuel production with solid superacid catalysis in fixed bed reactor under atmospheric pressure , 2004 .

[17]  Bin Liang,et al.  Supported CaO Catalysts Used in the Transesterification of Rapeseed Oil for the Purpose of Biodiesel Production , 2008 .

[18]  Dae Won Lee,et al.  The heterogeneous catalyst system for the continuous conversion of free fatty acids in used vegetable oils for the production of biodiesel , 2008 .

[19]  Hong-shik Lee,et al.  Transesterification of RBD palm oil using supercritical methanol , 2008 .

[20]  E. H. Pryde,et al.  Variables affecting the yields of fatty esters from transesterified vegetable oils , 1984 .

[21]  Saeid Baroutian,et al.  Potassium hydroxide catalyst supported on palm shell activated carbon for transesterification of palm oil , 2010 .

[22]  Ali O. Al-Shyoukh,et al.  Experimental evaluation of the transesterification of waste palm oil into biodiesel. , 2002, Bioresource technology.

[23]  A. Kamaruddin,et al.  Catalytic studies of lipase on FAME production from waste cooking palm oil in a tert-butanol system , 2008 .

[24]  Shiro Saka,et al.  Thermal stability of biodiesel in supercritical methanol , 2008 .

[25]  Guanyi Chen,et al.  Enzymatic conversion of waste cooking oils into alternative fuel—Biodiesel , 2006, Applied biochemistry and biotechnology.

[26]  Ruengwit Sawangkeaw,et al.  Continuous Production of Biodiesel via Transesterification from Vegetable Oils in Supercritical Methanol , 2006 .

[27]  José M. Encinar,et al.  Ethanolysis of used frying oil. Biodiesel preparation and characterization , 2007 .

[28]  Keat Teong Lee,et al.  Malaysian palm oil: Surviving the food versus fuel dispute for a sustainable future , 2009 .

[29]  C. Pham‐Huu,et al.  One-pot synthesis of Ga-SBA-15 : Activity comparison with Ga-post-treated SBA-15 catalysts , 2007 .

[30]  Yomi Watanabe,et al.  Continuous production of biodiesel fuel from vegetable oil using immobilized Candida antarctica lipase , 2000 .

[31]  S. Bhatia,et al.  ULTRASONIC-ASSISTED BIODIESEL PRODUCTION PROCESS FROM PALM OIL USING ALKALINE EARTH METAL OXIDES AS THE HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSTS , 2010 .

[32]  J. H. Van Gerpen,et al.  A pilot plant to produce biodiesel from high free fatty acid feedstocks. , 2003 .

[33]  G. Seo,et al.  High activity of acid-treated quail eggshell catalysts in the transesterification of palm oil with methanol. , 2010, Bioresource technology.

[34]  S. Bhatia,et al.  Supercritical ethanol technology for the production of biodiesel: Process optimization studies , 2009 .

[35]  H. Hattori.  Heterogeneous Basic Catalysis , 1995 .

[36]  Keat-Teong Lee,et al.  Optimization of mesoporous K/SBA-15 catalyzed transesterification of palm oil using response surface methodology , 2009 .

[37]  S. Bhatia,et al.  Biodiesel production from palm oil via heterogeneous transesterification , 2009 .

[38]  A. Mohamed,et al.  Sulfated tin oxide as solid superacid catalyst for transesterification of waste cooking oil: An optimization study , 2009 .

[39]  Kenthorai Raman Jegannathan,et al.  Production of biodiesel from palm oil using liquid core lipase encapsulated in κ-carrageenan , 2010 .

[40]  Mario R. Meneghetti,et al.  Biodiesel from Castor Oil: A Comparison of Ethanolysis versus Methanolysis , 2006 .

[41]  Jeff Tollefson,et al.  Hydrogen vehicles: Fuel of the future? , 2010, Nature.

[42]  J. Wu,et al.  Novozym 435 for production of biodiesel from unrefined palm oil: Comparison of methanolysis methods , 2009 .

[43]  S. Bhatia,et al.  The feasibility study of crude palm oil transesterification at 30 °C operation. , 2010, Bioresource technology.

[44]  H. Noureddini,et al.  Immobilized Pseudomonas cepacia lipase for biodiesel fuel production from soybean oil. , 2005, Bioresource technology.

[45]  Jin-Suk Lee,et al.  Biodiesel production by heterogeneous catalysts and supercritical technologies. , 2010, Bioresource technology.

[46]  Jianghua Wang,et al.  Biodiesel production from high acid value waste frying oil catalyzed by superacid heteropolyacid , 2008, Biotechnology and bioengineering.

[47]  F. R. Voort,et al.  Determination of free fatty acids in crude palm oil and refined-bleached-deodorized palm olein using fourier transform infrared spectroscopy , 1999 .

[48]  Zongchang Zhao,et al.  The interaction of waxes with pour point depressants , 2010 .

[49]  Vijayanand S. Moholkar,et al.  Physical Mechanism of Ultrasound-Assisted Synthesis of Biodiesel , 2009 .

[50]  A. Kondo,et al.  Biodiesel fuel production by transesterification of oils. , 2001, Journal of bioscience and bioengineering.

[51]  M. Talukder,et al.  Two-step lipase catalysis for production of biodiesel , 2010 .

[52]  Samia Ashraf,et al.  Production of sunflower oil methyl esters by optimized alkali-catalyzed methanolysis. , 2008 .

[53]  E. Lotero,et al.  Stability of sulfated zirconia and the nature of the catalytically active species in the transesterification of triglycerides , 2008 .

[54]  M. H. Beyzavi,et al.  KF/Al2O3 as a Highly Efficient, Green, Heterogeneous, and Reusable Catalytic System for the Solvent-Free Synthesis of Carboacyclic Nucleosides via Michael Addition Reaction , 2008 .

[55]  Jusuke Hidaka,et al.  Active phase of calcium oxide used as solid base catalyst for transesterification of soybean oil with refluxing methanol , 2008 .

[57]  S. Chuepeng,et al.  Solid Acid Catalyst for Biodiesel Production from Waste Used Cooking Oils , 2009 .

[58]  I. Tan,et al.  Optimization of basic dye removal by oil palm fibre-based activated carbon using response surface methodology. , 2008, Journal of hazardous materials.

[59]  M. Zong,et al.  Efficient production of biodiesel from high free fatty acid-containing waste oils using various carbohydrate-derived solid acid catalysts. , 2008, Bioresource technology.

[60]  S. Meneghetti,et al.  Transesterification reaction of vegetable oils, using superacid sulfated TiO2–base catalysts , 2008 .

[61]  Ernesto E. Borrero,et al.  Biodiesel from an alkaline transesterification reaction of soybean oil using ultrasonic mixing , 2005 .

[62]  S. Bhatia,et al.  Biodiesel (FAME) Productivity, Catalytic Efficiency and Thermal Stability of Lipozyme TL IM for Crude Palm Oil Transesterification with Methanol , 2010 .

[63]  Denis Poncelet,et al.  Production of Biodiesel Using Immobilized Lipase—A Critical Review , 2008, Critical reviews in biotechnology.

[64]  Wei Ruiping,et al.  Transesterification of Palm Oil with Methanol to Biodiesel over a KF/Al2O3 Heterogeneous Base Catalyst , 2007 .

[65]  S. Šiler-Marinković,et al.  Kinetics of lipase-catalyzed hydrolysis of palm oil in lecithin/izooctane reversed micelles , 1998, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[66]  Jesus Santamaria,et al.  Biodiesel from sunflower oil by using activated calcium oxide , 2007 .

[67]  Man Kee Lam,et al.  Homogeneous, heterogeneous and enzymatic catalysis for transesterification of high free fatty acid oil (waste cooking oil) to biodiesel: a review. , 2010, Biotechnology advances.

[68]  T. Tan,et al.  Biodiesel production with immobilized lipase: A review. , 2010, Biotechnology advances.

[69]  Baoxin Li,et al.  Application of waste eggshell as low-cost solid catalyst for biodiesel production. , 2009, Bioresource technology.

[70]  D. Royon,et al.  Enzymatic production of biodiesel from cotton seed oil using t-butanol as a solvent. , 2007, Bioresource technology.

[71]  P. Udomsap,et al.  Modification of calcite by hydration–dehydration method for heterogeneous biodiesel production process: The effects of water on properties and activity , 2010 .

[72]  B. Hameed,et al.  Alum as a heterogeneous catalyst for the transesterification of palm oil , 2009 .

[73]  L. F. Bautista,et al.  Biodiesel production from crude palm oil using sulfonic acid-modified mesostructured catalysts , 2010 .

[74]  Yong Wang,et al.  COMPARISON OF TWO DIFFERENT PROCESSES TO SYNTHESIZE BIODIESEL BY WASTE COOKING OIL , 2006 .

[75]  Xiaohong Wang,et al.  Heteropolyacid Nanoreactor with Double Acid Sites as a Highly Efficient and Reusable Catalyst for the Transesterification of Waste Cooking Oil , 2009 .

[76]  K. F. Yee,et al.  BIODIESEL PRODUCTION FROM PALM OIL VIA HETEROGENEOUS TRANSESTERIFICATION: OPTIMIZATION STUDY , 2010 .

[77]  Yoshio Tominaga,et al.  Enzymatic conversion of waste edible oil to biodiesel fuel in a fixed-bed bioreactor , 2001 .

[78]  C. R. Wolf,et al.  Transformação de triglicerídeos em combustíveis, materiais poliméricos e insumos químicos: algumas aplicações da catálise na oleoquímica , 2007 .

[79]  Aniruddha B. Pandit,et al.  Ultrasound-Assisted Synthesis of Biodiesel from Palm Fatty Acid Distillate , 2009 .

[80]  Jinfu Wang,et al.  Biodiesel production from waste oil feedstocks by solid acid catalysis , 2008 .

[81]  Guanyi Chen,et al.  Study on the production of biodiesel by magnetic cell biocatalyst based on lipase-producing Bacillus subtilis , 2007, Applied biochemistry and biotechnology.

[82]  Wan Mohd Ashri Wan Daud,et al.  Biodiesel production using alumina-supported calcium oxide: An optimization study , 2010 .

[83]  Don-Hee Park,et al.  Production of biodiesel fuel by transesterification of rapeseed oil , 2004, Applied biochemistry and biotechnology.

[84]  Birgir Norddahl,et al.  A review of the current state of biodiesel production using enzymatic transesterification , 2009, Biotechnology and bioengineering.

[85]  K. Raja Gopal,et al.  A review on biodiesel production, combustion, emissions and performance , 2009 .

[86]  Per Munk Nielsen,et al.  Enzymatic biodiesel production: Technical and economical considerations , 2008 .

[87]  Bin Liang,et al.  Production of biodiesel from Jatropha curcas L. oil , 2009, Comput. Chem. Eng..

[88]  Daniel Montané,et al.  Synergic effects of biodiesel in the biodegradability of fossil-derived fuels , 2006 .

[89]  M. Harmer,et al.  Addition of Carboxylic Acids to Cyclic Olefins Catalyzed by Strong Acidic Ion-Exchange Resins , 1999 .

[90]  R. Nascimento,et al.  Transesterification of brazilian vegetable oils with methanol over ion-exchange resins , 2005 .

[91]  Maialen Sánchez,et al.  Synthesis of biodiesel with heterogeneous NaOH/alumina catalysts: Comparison with homogeneous NaOH , 2007 .

[92]  P. Rangsunvigit,et al.  Transesterification of crude palm kernel oil and crude coconut oil by different solid catalysts , 2006 .

[93]  Gaanty Pragas Maniam,et al.  Biodiesel production via transesterification of palm olein using waste mud crab (Scylla serrata) shell as a heterogeneous catalyst. , 2009, Bioresource technology.

[94]  M. Almeida,et al.  Comparison of the performance of different homogeneous alkali catalysts during transesterification of waste and virgin oils and evaluation of biodiesel quality , 2008 .

[95]  M. G. Kulkarni,et al.  WASTE COOKING OIL – AN ECONOMICAL SOURCE FOR BIODIESEL: A REVIEW , 2006 .

[96]  A. Ahmad,et al.  Process Optimization for Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Palm Oil (Elaeis guineensis) Using Response Surface Methodology , 2009 .

[97]  Nestor U. Soriano,et al.  Ozonized vegetable oil as pour point depressant for neat biodiesel , 2006 .