Children Exposure to Multiple Mycotoxins through Food Consumption: A Holistic Approach for Risk Assessment

This research was performed under the MYCOMIX project “Exploring the toxic effects of mixtures of mycotoxins in infant food and potential health impact” (PTDC/DTP-FTO/0417/2012) and CESAM Lisboa UID/AMB/50017/2013, both funded by the Fundacao para a Ciencia e Tecnologia (FCT), Portugal.

[1]  J. D. Biesebeek,et al.  A mycotoxin-dedicated total diet study in the Netherlands in 2013: Part III – exposure and risk assessment , 2016 .

[2]  J. Pestka.  Deoxynivalenol: mechanisms of action, human exposure, and toxicological relevance , 2010, Archives of Toxicology.

[3]  Bochra Kouidhi,et al.  Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity induced by aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A, and their combination in cultured Vero cells , 2010, Journal of biochemical and molecular toxicology.

[4]  S. Cunha,et al.  Development and validation of a method based on a QuEChERS procedure and heart-cutting GC-MS for determination of five mycotoxins in cereal products. , 2010, Journal of separation science.

[5]  H. Humpf,et al.  Determination of mycotoxin exposure in Germany using an LC-MS/MS multibiomarker approach. , 2014, Molecular nutrition & food research.

[6]  S. Loewe,et al.  Über Kombinationswirkungen , 1926, Naunyn-Schmiedebergs Archiv für experimentelle Pathologie und Pharmakologie.

[7]  R. Altenburger,et al.  Combined effects of mycotoxin mixtures on human T cell function. , 2007, Toxicology letters.

[8]  Ariane Vettorazzi,et al.  Mycotoxins as Food Carcinogens , 2016 .

[9]  Yingxin Yu,et al.  Human health risk assessment of multiple contaminants due to consumption of animal-based foods available in the markets of Shanghai, China , 2015, Environmental Science and Pollution Research.

[10]  C. Frizzell,et al.  Challenging conventional risk assessment with respect to human exposure to multiple food contaminants in food: A case study using maize. , 2015, Toxicology letters.

[11]  G. Font,et al.  Study of the potential toxicity of commercial crispy breads by evaluation of bioaccessibility and bioavailability of minor Fusarium mycotoxins. , 2012, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[12]  S. Cunha,et al.  Mycotoxins in cereals and related foodstuffs: A review on occurrence and recent methods of analysis , 2014 .

[13]  Jean-Pierre Gauchi,et al.  Quantitative Assessment of Exposure to the Mycotoxin Ochratoxin A in Food , 2002, Risk analysis : an official publication of the Society for Risk Analysis.

[14]  J. Fantini,et al.  The mycotoxin patulin alters the barrier function of the intestinal epithelium: mechanism of action of the toxin and protective effects of glutathione. , 2002, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[15]  H. Lee,et al.  Years of Advancing Food Science , and Preparing for the Next 75 Advances in Mycotoxin Research : Public Health Perspectives , 2015 .

[16]  E. Ferrer,et al.  Co-occurrence and risk assessment of mycotoxins in food and diet from Mediterranean area. , 2012, Food chemistry.

[17]  T. Massey,et al.  Aflatoxin B1-induced DNA damage and its repair. , 2006, Cancer letters.

[18]  R. Spiller,et al.  Intestinal barrier function in health and gastrointestinal disease , 2012, Neurogastroenterology and motility : the official journal of the European Gastrointestinal Motility Society.

[19]  J. Kearney,et al.  Food consumption trends and drivers , 2010, Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences.

[20]  David Artis,et al.  Intestinal epithelial cells: regulators of barrier function and immune homeostasis , 2014, Nature Reviews Immunology.

[21]  H. Yoon,et al.  Total Diet Studies as a Tool for Ensuring Food Safety , 2015, Toxicological research.

[22]  Thomas Backhaus,et al.  Hazard and Risk Assessment of Chemical Mixtures under REACH - State of the Art, Gaps and Options for Improvement. Swedish Chemicals Inspectorate , Report PM/3 2010 , 2010 .

[23]  Rudolf Krska,et al.  Mycotoxin analysis: An update , 2008, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[24]  A. Anadón,et al.  Mycotoxins modify the barrier function of Caco-2 cells through differential gene expression of specific claudin isoforms: Protective effect of illite mineral clay. , 2016, Toxicology.

[25]  R. Köppen,et al.  Determination of mycotoxins in foods: current state of analytical methods and limitations , 2010, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[26]  Mieke Uyttendaele,et al.  Challenges in Risk Assessment: Quantitative Risk Assessment☆ , 2016 .

[27]  Suxia Zhang,et al.  T-2 toxin, a trichothecene mycotoxin: review of toxicity, metabolism, and analytical methods. , 2011, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[28]  D. C. Cara,et al.  Food Components and the Immune System: From Tonic Agents to Allergens , 2013, Front. Immunol..

[29]  C. Lemaire,et al.  Different apoptotic pathways induced by zearalenone, T-2 toxin and ochratoxin A in human hepatoma cells. , 2008, Toxicology.

[30]  M. Jonker,et al.  Significance testing of synergistic/antagonistic, dose level‐dependent, or dose ratio‐dependent effects in mixture dose‐response analysis , 2005, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[31]  I. Oswald,et al.  Deoxynivalenol inhibits the expression by goblet cells of intestinal mucins through a PKR and MAP kinase dependent repression of the resistin-like molecule β. , 2015, Molecular nutrition & food research.

[32]  J. Mclaughlin,et al.  Ochratoxin A increases permeability through tight junctions by removal of specific claudin isoforms. , 2004, American journal of physiology. Cell physiology.

[33]  B. D. Santis,et al.  Ochratoxin A in cocoa and chocolate products from the Italian market: Occurrence and exposure assessment , 2011 .

[34]  C. Lino,et al.  Occurrence of fumonisins B1 and B2 in Portuguese maize and maize-based foods intended for human consumption , 2007, Food additives and contaminants.

[35]  R. Havenaar,et al.  Evaluation of the intestinal absorption of deoxynivalenol and nivalenol by an in vitro gastrointestinal model, and the binding efficacy of activated carbon and other adsorbent materials. , 2004, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[36]  Patrice D Cani,et al.  Human Intestinal Barrier Function in Health and Disease , 2016, Clinical and Translational Gastroenterology.

[37]  N. Gassler,et al.  Intestinal barrier: Molecular pathways and modifiers. , 2013, World journal of gastrointestinal pathophysiology.

[38]  Le Shen.  Tight junctions on the move: molecular mechanisms for epithelial barrier regulation , 2012, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[39]  Bulent Kabak,et al.  Ochratoxin A in cereal-derived products in Turkey: occurrence and exposure assessment. , 2009, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[40]  M. Klarić,et al.  Deleterious Effects of Mycotoxin Combinations Involving Ochratoxin A , 2013, Toxins.

[41]  J. Garssen,et al.  Deoxynivalenol: a trigger for intestinal integrity breakdown , 2014, FASEB journal : official publication of the Federation of American Societies for Experimental Biology.

[42]  C. V. Van Peteghem,et al.  A direct assessment of mycotoxin biomarkers in human urine samples by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. , 2012, Analytica chimica acta.

[43]  Á. Mesterházy,et al.  Fumonisin B1-4-producing capacity of Hungarian Fusarium verticillioides isolates. , 2010 .

[44]  R. Krska,et al.  Bio-monitoring of mycotoxin exposure in Cameroon using a urinary multi-biomarker approach. , 2013, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[45]  H. M. Martins,et al.  Co-occurrence of deoxynivalenol and zearalenone in crops marketed in Portugal , 2008, Food additives & contaminants. Part B, Surveillance.

[46]  X. Xia,et al.  Oxidative stress is involved in Patulin induced apoptosis in HEK293 cells. , 2015, Toxicon : official journal of the International Society on Toxinology.

[47]  C. Hummert,et al.  Development of a multicomponent method for Fusarium toxins using LC-MS/MS and its application during a survey for the content of T-2 toxin and deoxynivalenol in various feed and food samples , 2005, Food additives and contaminants.

[48]  R. Mrsny,et al.  Epithelial myosin light chain kinase-dependent barrier dysfunction mediates T cell activation-induced diarrhea in vivo. , 2005, The Journal of clinical investigation.

[49]  S. Marzocco,et al.  Modulation of macrophage activity by aflatoxins B1 and B2 and their metabolites aflatoxins M1 and M2. , 2012, Toxicon : official journal of the International Society on Toxinology.

[50]  I. Sioen,et al.  TDS exposure project: application of the analytic hierarchy process for the prioritization of substances to be analyzed in a total diet study. , 2015, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[51]  C. Lino,et al.  Ochratoxin A survey in Portuguese wine by LC-FD with direct injection. , 2010, Talanta.

[52]  A. Nafziger,et al.  Phenotyping of drug-metabolizing enzymes in adults: a review of in-vivo cytochrome P450 phenotyping probes. , 2000, Pharmacogenetics.

[53]  Carolyn Vickers,et al.  Risk assessment of combined exposure to multiple chemicals: A WHO/IPCS framework. , 2011, Regulatory toxicology and pharmacology : RTP.

[54]  S. Piletsky,et al.  Analytical methods for determination of mycotoxins: An update (2009-2014). , 2015, Analytica chimica acta.

[55]  A Prandini,et al.  On the occurrence of aflatoxin M1 in milk and dairy products. , 2009, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[56]  B. Jelaković,et al.  Aristolochic acid and the etiology of endemic (Balkan) nephropathy , 2007, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[57]  A. Merrill,et al.  Alteration of tissue and serum sphinganine to sphingosine ratio: an early biomarker of exposure to fumonisin-containing feeds in pigs. , 1993, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[58]  Í. Navarro-Blasco,et al.  Aflatoxin levels and exposure assessment of Spanish infant cereals , 2010, Food additives & contaminants. Part B, Surveillance.

[59]  P. Cressey,et al.  Dietary exposure and risk assessment for aflatoxins in New Zealand , 2013 .

[60]  J. Mañes,et al.  A survey of trichothecenes, zearalenone and patulin in milled grain-based products using GC-MS/MS. , 2014, Food chemistry.

[61]  C. Frizzell,et al.  Cytotoxic assessment of the regulated, co-existing mycotoxins aflatoxin B1, fumonisin B1 and ochratoxin, in single, binary and tertiary mixtures. , 2014, Toxicon : official journal of the International Society on Toxinology.

[62]  C. Juan,et al.  Presence of mycotoxin in commercial infant formulas and baby foods from Italian market , 2014 .

[63]  J. Mañes,et al.  Influence of the heat treatment on the degradation of the minor Fusarium mycotoxin beauvericin , 2012 .

[64]  M. Castegnaro,et al.  Analysis of some breakfast cereals on the French market for their contents of ochratoxin A, citrinin and fumonisin B1: development of a method for simultaneous extraction of ochratoxin A and citrinin , 2005 .

[65]  M. Blaszkewicz,et al.  Exposure of infants to ochratoxin A with breast milk , 2013, Archives of Toxicology.

[66]  M. Corredig,et al.  A standardised static in vitro digestion method suitable for food - an international consensus. , 2014, Food & function.

[67]  L. Abrunhosa,et al.  A Review of Mycotoxins in Food and Feed Products in Portugal and Estimation of Probable Daily Intakes , 2016, Critical reviews in food science and nutrition.

[68]  C. Frizzell,et al.  High content analysis: a sensitive tool to detect and quantify the cytotoxic, synergistic and antagonistic effects of chemical contaminants in foods. , 2015, Toxicology letters.

[69]  D Parent-Massin,et al.  In vitro effects of trichothecenes on human dendritic cells. , 2006, Toxicology in vitro : an international journal published in association with BIBRA.

[70]  M. Oellerich,et al.  Mycophenolic acid mediated disruption of the intestinal epithelial tight junctions. , 2014, Experimental cell research.

[71]  A. Hayes,et al.  Mycotoxins in a changing global environment--a review. , 2014, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[72]  S. Kirinčič,et al.  Mycotoxins in cereals and cereal products in Slovenia – Official control of foods in the years 2008–2012 , 2015 .

[73]  L. Etienne-Mesmin,et al.  Relevance and challenges in modeling human gastric and small intestinal digestion. , 2012, Trends in biotechnology.

[74]  R. Etzel.  What the primary care pediatrician should know about syndromes associated with exposures to mycotoxins. , 2006, Current problems in pediatric and adolescent health care.

[75]  Ciências Veterinárias,et al.  Aflatoxin M1 determination in cheese by immunoaffinity column clean-up coupled to high-performance liquid chromatography Determinação de Aflatoxina M1 em queijos por HPLC com purificação por colunas de imunoafinidade , 2007 .

[76]  J. Fantini,et al.  The mycotoxin deoxynivalenol affects nutrient absorption in human intestinal epithelial cells. , 2002, The Journal of nutrition.

[77]  Theo Vermeire,et al.  Risk assessment of chemicals : an introduction , 2007 .

[78]  Laurent Ferrier,et al.  The food contaminant deoxynivalenol, decreases intestinal barrier permeability and reduces claudin expression. , 2009, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[79]  S. Dänicke,et al.  In vivo and in vitro effects of the mycotoxins zearalenone and deoxynivalenol on different non-reproductive and reproductive organs in female pigs: A review , 2007, Food additives and contaminants.

[80]  S. Pepeljnjak,et al.  Beauvericin and ochratoxin A genotoxicity evaluated using the alkaline comet assay: single and combined genotoxic action , 2010, Archives of Toxicology.

[81]  A. Alshatwi,et al.  Hepatotoxic effect of ochratoxin A and citrinin, alone and in combination, and protective effect of vitamin E: In vitro study in HepG2 cell. , 2015, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[82]  C. Lino,et al.  Occurrence of fumonisins B1 and B2 in broa, typical Portuguese maize bread. , 2007, International journal of food microbiology.

[83]  Rolf Altenburger,et al.  Mixture toxicity revisited from a toxicogenomic perspective. , 2012, Environmental science & technology.

[84]  J. Leblanc,et al.  Dietary exposure to mycotoxins and health risk assessment in the second French total diet study. , 2013, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[85]  R. Stierum,et al.  Toxicology of chemical mixtures: a challenging quest along empirical sciences. , 2004, Environmental toxicology and pharmacology.

[86]  Elena Lizarraga,et al.  Presence of mycotoxins in animal milk: A review , 2015 .

[87]  J. Mclaughlin,et al.  Ochratoxin A displaces claudins from detergent resistant membrane microdomains. , 2007, Biochemical and biophysical research communications.

[88]  J. V. van Delft,et al.  A review on ochratoxin A transcriptomic studies. , 2013, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[89]  R. Etzel.  Reducing Malnutrition: Time to Consider Potential Links Between Stunting and Mycotoxin Exposure? , 2014, Pediatrics.

[90]  I. Huybrechts,et al.  Dietary mycotoxins, co-exposure, and carcinogenesis in humans: Short review. , 2015, Mutation research. Reviews in mutation research.

[91]  Toxicity of the mycotoxin citrinin and its metabolite dihydrocitrinone and of mixtures of citrinin and ochratoxin A in vitro , 2014, Archives of Toxicology.

[92]  H. M. Martins,et al.  Determination of deoxynivalenol in wheat-based breakfast cereals marketed in Portugal. , 2001, Journal of food protection.

[93]  F. Cheli,et al.  EU legislation on cereal safety: An update with a focus on mycotoxins , 2014 .

[94]  J. Mañes,et al.  Development of a GC-MS/MS strategy to determine 15 mycotoxins and metabolites in human urine. , 2014, Talanta.

[95]  M. Shimizu.  Interaction between Food Substances and the Intestinal Epithelium , 2010, Bioscience, biotechnology, and biochemistry.

[96]  F. Bosco,et al.  Mycotoxins in Food , 2012 .

[97]  A. Venâncio,et al.  Ochratoxin A occurrence and formation in Portuguese wine grapes at various stages of maturation. , 2006, Journal of food microbiology.

[98]  Kohei Takahashi,et al.  Correlation between the destruction of tight junction by patulin treatment and increase of phosphorylation of ZO-1 in Caco-2 human colon cancer cells. , 2011, Toxicology letters.

[99]  N. Saxena,et al.  Patulin causes DNA damage leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis through modulation of Bax, p(53) and p(21/WAF1) proteins in skin of mice. , 2009, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[100]  S. Madec,et al.  Natural Co-Occurrence of Mycotoxins in Foods and Feeds and Their in vitro Combined Toxicological Effects , 2016, Toxins.

[101]  C. V. Van Peteghem,et al.  Differential modulation of ochratoxin A absorption across Caco-2 cells by dietary polyphenols, used at realistic intestinal concentrations. , 2005, Toxicology letters.

[102]  C. Juan,et al.  Determination of ochratoxin A in maize bread samples by LC with fluorescence detection. , 2007, Talanta.

[103]  B. Warth,et al.  Non-synergistic cytotoxic effects of Fusarium and Alternaria toxin combinations in Caco-2 cells. , 2016, Toxicology letters.

[104]  J. Fantini,et al.  Both direct and indirect effects account for the pro-inflammatory activity of enteropathogenic mycotoxins on the human intestinal epithelium: stimulation of interleukin-8 secretion, potentiation of interleukin-1beta effect and increase in the transepithelial passage of commensal bacteria. , 2008, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[105]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Exposure assessment to ochratoxin A in Catalonia (Spain) based on the consumption of cereals, nuts, coffee, wine, and beer , 2012, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[106]  J. V. van Bilsen,et al.  Digestibility of transglutaminase cross-linked caseinate versus native caseinate in an in vitro multicompartmental model simulating young child and adult gastrointestinal conditions. , 2013, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[107]  V. Dohnal,et al.  Metabolism of aflatoxins: key enzymes and interindividual as well as interspecies differences , 2014, Archives of Toxicology.

[108]  C. V. Van Peteghem,et al.  Molecular and cellular effects of food contaminants and secondary plant components and their plausible interactions at the intestinal level. , 2008, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[109]  M. Taniwaki,et al.  Determination of aflatoxins in by-products of industrial processing of cocoa beans , 2012, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[110]  D. Mcclements,et al.  In vitro human digestion models for food applications , 2011 .

[111]  G. Shephard,et al.  HPLC determination of fumonisin mycotoxins in maize: a comparative study of naphthalene-2,3-dicarboxaldehyde and o-phthaldialdehyde derivatization reagents for fluorescence and diode array detection. , 2011, Journal of chromatography. B, Analytical technologies in the biomedical and life sciences.

[112]  C. Lino,et al.  Determination of fumonisins B1 and B2 in Portuguese maize and maize-based samples by HPLC with fluorescence detection , 2006, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[113]  A. Naska,et al.  Comparison of national food supply, household food availability and individual food consumption data in Portugal , 2007, Journal of Public Health.

[114]  C. Giromini,et al.  Mycotoxin mechanisms of action and health impact: ‘in vitro’ or ‘in vivo’ tests, that is the question , 2015 .

[115]  M. Taniwaki,et al.  Occurrence of ochratoxin A in cocoa by-products and determination of its reduction during chocolate manufacture. , 2013, Food chemistry.

[116]  J. Castenmiller,et al.  A mycotoxin-dedicated total diet study in the Netherlands in 2013: Part II – occurrence , 2016 .

[117]  R. Krska,et al.  Multiple mycotoxin exposure determined by urinary biomarkers in rural subsistence farmers in the former Transkei, South Africa. , 2013, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[118]  R. Krska,et al.  Developments in mycotoxin analysis: an update for 2014-2015 , 2016 .

[119]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Cytotoxicity of the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol and ochratoxin A on Caco-2 cell line in presence of resveratrol. , 2015, Toxicology in vitro : an international journal published in association with BIBRA.

[120]  Ioannis S. Arvanitoyannis,et al.  An update of EU legislation (Directives and Regulations) on food‐related issues (Safety, Hygiene, Packaging, Technology, GMOs, Additives, Radiation, Labelling): presentation and comments , 2005 .

[121]  Nelson Lima,et al.  How will climate change affect mycotoxins in food , 2010 .

[122]  A. Piersma,et al.  Assessment of health risks resulting from early-life exposures: Are current chemical toxicity testing protocols and risk assessment methods adequate? , 2015, Critical reviews in toxicology.

[123]  Carla Rêgo,et al.  Alimentação e nutrição do lactente , 2012 .

[124]  H. Humpf,et al.  A comparative study of the human urinary mycotoxin excretion patterns in Bangladesh, Germany, and Haiti using a rapid and sensitive LC-MS/MS approach , 2015, Mycotoxin Research.

[125]  Y. Schneider,et al.  Deoxynivalenol affects in vitro intestinal epithelial cell barrier integrity through inhibition of protein synthesis. , 2010, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[126]  F. R. van Leeuwen,et al.  Subacute toxicity study of patulin in the rat: effects on the kidney and the gastro-intestinal tract. , 1988, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[127]  J. M. Soriano,et al.  Exposure to patulin from consumption of apple-based products , 2007, Food additives and contaminants.

[128]  I. Oswald,et al.  The effects of mycotoxins, fungal food contaminants, on the intestinal epithelial cell-derived innate immune response. , 2005, Veterinary immunology and immunopathology.

[129]  M. Solfrizzo,et al.  Biomonitoring of concurrent mycotoxin exposure among adults in Sweden through urinary multi-biomarker analysis. , 2015, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[130]  Peter A Vanrolleghem,et al.  Variability and uncertainty assessment of patulin exposure for preschool children in Flanders. , 2007, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[131]  D. Sarigiannis,et al.  Considering the cumulative risk of mixtures of chemicals – A challenge for policy makers , 2012, Environmental Health.

[132]  H. Kikuchi,et al.  The mycotoxin patulin decreases expression of density-enhanced phosphatase-1 by down-regulating PPARγ in human colon cancer cells. , 2014, The Tohoku journal of experimental medicine.

[133]  Felicia Wu,et al.  Ochratoxin A and Human Health Risk: A Review of the Evidence , 2015, Critical reviews in food science and nutrition.

[134]  H. Bacha,et al.  Individual and combined effects of ochratoxin A and citrinin on viability and DNA fragmentation in cultured Vero cells and on chromosome aberrations in mice bone marrow cells. , 2008, Toxicology.

[135]  C. Delerue-Matos,et al.  Determination of Ochratoxin A in Bread: Evaluation of Microwave-Assisted Extraction Using an Orthogonal Composite Design Coupled with Response Surface Methodology , 2013, Food and Bioprocess Technology.

[136]  A G Renwick,et al.  Risk assessment of dietary exposures to compounds that are genotoxic and carcinogenic--an overview. , 2008, Toxicology letters.

[137]  V. Silano,et al.  Food and feed chemical contaminants in the European Union: Regulatory, scientific, and technical issues concerning chemical contaminants occurrence, risk assessment, and risk management in the European Union , 2017, Critical reviews in food science and nutrition.

[138]  G. García-Llatas,et al.  Study of thermal resistance and in vitro bioaccessibility of patulin from artificially contaminated apple products. , 2012, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[139]  D. Qi,et al.  In vitro investigation of individual and combined cytotoxic effects of aflatoxin B1 and other selected mycotoxins on the cell line porcine kidney 15. , 2013, Experimental and toxicologic pathology : official journal of the Gesellschaft fur Toxikologische Pathologie.

[140]  M. J. Silva,et al.  Multi-mycotoxin determination in baby foods and in vitro combined cytotoxic effects of aflatoxin M1 and ochratoxin A , 2013 .

[141]  B. Salleh,et al.  An overview of mycotoxin contamination in foods and its implications for human health , 2010 .

[142]  S. Cunha,et al.  Comparative assessment of three cleanup procedures after QuEChERS extraction for determination of trichothecenes (type A and type B) in processed cereal-based baby foods by GC-MS. , 2015, Food chemistry.

[143]  W. Gelderblom,et al.  Controversies in fumonisin mycotoxicology and risk assessment , 2012, Human & experimental toxicology.

[144]  G. Font,et al.  Bioaccessibility of enniatins A, A₁, B, and B₁ in different commercial breakfast cereals, cookies, and breads of Spain. , 2013, Journal of agricultural and food chemistry.

[145]  B. Kabak,et al.  Assessment of the bioaccessibility of aflatoxins from various food matrices using an in vitro digestion model, and the efficacy of probiotic bacteria in reducing bioaccessibility , 2012 .

[146]  H. Louro,et al.  A contribution to hazard assessment of combined exposure to mycotoxins using in vitro toxicity testing , 2015 .

[147]  E. Waters,et al.  Transition from milks to the introduction of solid foods across the first 2 years of life: findings from an Australian birth cohort study , 2015, Journal of human nutrition and dietetics : the official journal of the British Dietetic Association.

[148]  A. Visconti,et al.  Investigation on the stability of deoxynivalenol and DON-3 glucoside during gastro-duodenal in vitro digestion of a naturally contaminated bread model food , 2014 .

[149]  A. Quaroni,et al.  Nivalenol induces oxidative stress and increases deoxynivalenol pro-oxidant effect in intestinal epithelial cells. , 2015, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[150]  J. Mañes,et al.  Occurrence of fumonisins B1, B2 and B3 in breakfast and infant cereals from Morocco , 2012 .

[151]  R. Manderville,et al.  Combined Toxic Effects of Ochratoxin A and Citrinin, In Vivo and In Vitro , 2008 .

[152]  B. Blaauboer.  The long and winding road of progress in the use of in vitro data for risk assessment purposes: From "carnation test" to integrated testing strategies. , 2015, Toxicology.

[153]  Bo Chen,et al.  Cumulative health risk assessment of co-occurring mycotoxins of deoxynivalenol and its acetyl derivatives in wheat and maize: case study, Shanghai, China. , 2014, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[154]  F. Kasuga,et al.  in Vitro Effect of Deoxynivalenol on the Differentiation of Human Colonic Cell Lines Caco-2 and t84 , 2004, Mycopathologia.

[155]  C. Lino,et al.  Determination of ochratoxin A in Portuguese rice samples by high performance liquid chromatography with fluorescence detection , 2005, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[156]  A. Ragas,et al.  Trends in human risk assessment of pharmaceuticals , 2007, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[157]  M. Piotrowska.  Contamination of breakfast cereal products by fungi and mycotoxins - a potential risk for consumer's health , 2013 .

[158]  E. Ferrer,et al.  Risk assessment of beauvericin, enniatins and fusaproliferin present in follow-up infant formula by in vitro evaluation of the duodenal and colonic bioaccessibility , 2014 .

[159]  K. Jahng,et al.  Quantitative determination of mycotoxins in urine by LC-MS/MS , 2010, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[160]  R. Kendall,et al.  Comparative acute and combinative toxicity of aflatoxin B1 and fumonisin B1 in animals and human cells. , 2006, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[161]  A. Mackie,et al.  Bioaccessibility of T-2 and HT-2 toxins in mycotoxin contaminated bread models submitted to in vitro human digestion , 2014 .

[162]  C. Exley,et al.  Human exposure to aluminium. , 2013, Environmental science. Processes & impacts.

[163]  Rudolf Krska,et al.  Optimization and validation of a quantitative liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometric method covering 295 bacterial and fungal metabolites including all regulated mycotoxins in four model food matrices. , 2014, Journal of chromatography. A.

[164]  S. Jinap,et al.  Assessment of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone in breakfast cereals. , 2014, Food chemistry.

[165]  H. M. Martins,et al.  Incidence of microflora and of ochratoxin A in green coffee beans (Coffea arabica) , 2003, Food additives and contaminants.

[166]  J. Henriques,et al.  DNA damage in organs of mice treated acutely with patulin, a known mycotoxin. , 2012, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[167]  P. Scott,et al.  Mycotoxins in breakfast cereals from the Canadian retail market: A 3-year survey , 2008, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[168]  N. Oliveira,et al.  Induction of micronuclei and chromosomal aberrations by the mycotoxin patulin in mammalian cells: role of ascorbic acid as a modulator of patulin clastogenicity. , 2000, Mutagenesis.

[169]  W. Dekant,et al.  Ochratoxin A-induced tumor formation: is there a role of reactive ochratoxin A metabolites? , 2001, Toxicological sciences : an official journal of the Society of Toxicology.

[170]  A. Visconti,et al.  Assessment of toxic potential of mycotoxin contaminated bread during in vitro human digestion on human B lymphoid cell line. , 2015, Toxicology letters.

[171]  W. Lencer,et al.  Myosin light chain phosphorylation regulates barrier function by remodeling tight junction structure , 2006, Journal of Cell Science.

[172]  Christopher M. Wharton,et al.  Examining the nutritional quality of breakfast cereals marketed to children. , 2008, Journal of the American Dietetic Association.

[173]  H. Raistrick,et al.  Patulin in the Common Cold. Collaborative Research on a Derivative of Penicillium patulum Bainier. II. Biochemistry and Chemistry. , 1943 .

[174]  E. González-Peñas,et al.  Occurrence of patulin and its dietary intake through apple juice consumption by the Spanish population. , 2009 .

[175]  Josef Schlatter,et al.  Application of the Margin of Exposure (MOE) approach to substances in food that are genotoxic and carcinogenic. , 2010, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[176]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Occurrence of fumonisins in Catalonia (Spain) and an exposure assessment of specific population groups , 2012, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[177]  P. Galtier,et al.  Biosynthesis and Toxicological Effects of Patulin , 2010, Toxins.

[178]  A. Sips,et al.  Effects of probiotic bacteria on the bioaccessibility of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A using an in vitro digestion model under fed conditions , 2009, Journal of environmental science and health. Part. B, Pesticides, food contaminants, and agricultural wastes.

[179]  C. Lino,et al.  Occurrence and risk assessment of zearalenone in flours from Portuguese and Dutch markets , 2014 .

[180]  G. Speijers,et al.  Combined toxic effects of mycotoxins. , 2004, Toxicology letters.

[181]  Jian Ji,et al.  A novel and simple cell-based electrochemical impedance biosensor for evaluating the combined toxicity of DON and ZEN. , 2015, Biosensors & bioelectronics.

[182]  H. M. Martins,et al.  Aflatoxins in spices marketed in Portugal , 2001, Food additives and contaminants.

[183]  Martha M Moore,et al.  Use of genetic toxicology information for risk assessment , 2005, Environmental and molecular mutagenesis.

[184]  Cian O'Mahony,et al.  Statistical method to assess usual dietary intakes in the European population , 2014, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[185]  Oliver A.H. Jones,et al.  Systems toxicology approaches for understanding the joint effects of environmental chemical mixtures. , 2010, The Science of the total environment.

[186]  J. Gómez-catalán,et al.  Occurrence of patulin in organic and conventional apple-based food marketed in Catalonia and exposure assessment. , 2013, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[187]  R. Manderville,et al.  Structure-activity relationships imply different mechanisms of action for ochratoxin A-mediated cytotoxicity and genotoxicity. , 2012, Chemical research in toxicology.

[188]  D. Dupont,et al.  Applicability of In Vitro Methods to Study Patulin Bioaccessibility and Its Effects on Intestinal Membrane Integrity , 2014, Journal of toxicology and environmental health. Part A.

[189]  A. Alizadeh,et al.  Fumonisin B1 contamination of cereals and risk of esophageal cancer in a high risk area in northeastern Iran. , 2012, Asian Pacific journal of cancer prevention : APJCP.

[190]  John Davis Groopman,et al.  The toxicology of aflatoxins: human health, veterinary and agricultural significance. , 1993 .

[191]  Y. Kwon,et al.  Patulin induces colorectal cancer cells apoptosis through EGR-1 dependent ATF3 up-regulation. , 2012, Cellular signalling.

[192]  R. Krska,et al.  Mycotoxin exposure in rural residents in northern Nigeria: a pilot study using multi-urinary biomarkers. , 2014, Environment international.

[193]  A. Rosenthal,et al.  The fate of patulin in apple juice processing: A review , 2008 .

[194]  Elena Lizarraga,et al.  Co-occurrence of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone in barley from a northern region of Spain. , 2012, Food chemistry.

[195]  S. Rouhi,et al.  Determination of patulin in fruit juices and compote of apple and pear , 2013 .

[196]  L. Jacxsens,et al.  Impact of maximum levels in European legislation on exposure of mycotoxins in dried products: case of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A in nuts and dried fruits. , 2015, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[197]  J. Fantini,et al.  Some food-associated mycotoxins as potential risk factors in humans predisposed to chronic intestinal inflammatory diseases. , 2010, Toxicon : official journal of the International Society on Toxinology.

[198]  V. Ostry,et al.  Ochratoxin A: 50 Years of Research , 2016, Toxins.

[199]  A. Marchiando,et al.  Epithelial barriers in homeostasis and disease. , 2010, Annual review of pathology.

[200]  M. Ibáñez,et al.  UHPLC–MS/MS highly sensitive determination of aflatoxins, the aflatoxin metabolite M1 and ochratoxin A in baby food and milk , 2011 .

[201]  S. Stoev.  Foodborne mycotoxicoses, risk assessment and underestimated hazard of masked mycotoxins and joint mycotoxin effects or interaction. , 2015, Environmental toxicology and pharmacology.

[202]  I. M. Hueza,et al.  Zearalenone, an Estrogenic Mycotoxin, Is an Immunotoxic Compound , 2014, Toxins.

[203]  A. Bacic,et al.  REVIEW: Variability in Fine Structures of Noncellulosic Cell Wall Polysaccharides from Cereal Grains: Potential Importance in Human Health and Nutrition , 2010 .

[204]  S. De Henauw,et al.  Assessment of mycotoxin exposure in the Belgian population using biomarkers: aim, design and methods of the BIOMYCO study , 2014, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[205]  Takuya Suzuki.  Regulation of intestinal epithelial permeability by tight junctions , 2012, Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences.

[206]  J. Garssen,et al.  The intestinal barrier as an emerging target in the toxicological assessment of mycotoxins , 2016, Archives of Toxicology.

[207]  Jack R Harkema,et al.  Stachybotrys chartarum, trichothecene mycotoxins, and damp building-related illness: new insights into a public health enigma. , 2008, Toxicological sciences : an official journal of the Society of Toxicology.

[208]  Elena Lizarraga,et al.  Validation of a UHPLC-FLD method for the simultaneous quantification of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone in barley , 2011 .

[209]  Timothy D Phillips,et al.  Human aflatoxicosis in developing countries: a review of toxicology, exposure, potential health consequences, and interventions. , 2004, The American journal of clinical nutrition.

[210]  E. Anklam,et al.  Liquid chromatographic method for quantitation of patulin at 10 ng/mL in apple-based products intended for infants: interlaboratory study. , 2005, Journal of AOAC International.

[211]  H. M. Martins,et al.  Aflatoxin M1 in raw and ultra high temperature-treated milk commercialized in Portugal , 2000, Food additives and contaminants.

[212]  Veronica M T Lattanzio,et al.  Simultaneous LC–MS/MS determination of aflatoxin M1, ochratoxin A, deoxynivalenol, de-epoxydeoxynivalenol, α and β-zearalenols and fumonisin B1 in urine as a multi-biomarker method to assess exposure to mycotoxins , 2011, Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry.

[213]  I. Oswald,et al.  Mycotoxins co-contamination: Methodological aspects and biological relevance of combined toxicity studies , 2017, Critical reviews in food science and nutrition.

[214]  E. González-Peñas,et al.  Study on ochratoxin A in cereal-derived products from Spain , 2005 .

[215]  A. Visconti,et al.  Occurrence of patulin in conventional and organic fruit products in Italy and subsequent exposure assessment , 2005, Food additives and contaminants.

[216]  T. Applegate,et al.  Modulation of Intestinal Functions Following Mycotoxin Ingestion: Meta-Analysis of Published Experiments in Animals , 2013, Toxins.

[217]  E. Ferrer,et al.  Analysis of mycotoxins in coffee and risk assessment in Spanish adolescents and adults. , 2015, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[218]  I. Lehmann,et al.  Patulin influences the expression of Th1/Th2 cytokines by activated peripheral blood mononuclear cells and T cells through depletion of intracellular glutathione , 2008, Environmental toxicology.

[219]  M. Maresca.  From the Gut to the Brain: Journey and Pathophysiological Effects of the Food-Associated Trichothecene Mycotoxin Deoxynivalenol , 2013, Toxins.

[220]  K. Luthman,et al.  Caco-2 monolayers in experimental and theoretical predictions of drug transport. , 2001, Advanced drug delivery reviews.

[221]  G. Manda,et al.  Dual Effects Exerted in Vitro by Micromolar Concentrations of Deoxynivalenol on Undifferentiated Caco-2 Cells , 2015, Toxins.

[222]  A. Azqueta,et al.  Ochratoxin A reduces aflatoxin B1 induced DNA damage detected by the comet assay in Hep G2 cells. , 2011, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[223]  Philippe Marteau,et al.  A Multicompartmental Dynamic Computer-controlled Model Simulating the Stomach and Small Intestine , 1995 .

[224]  G. Williams,et al.  Risk assessment of DNA-reactive carcinogens in food. , 2005, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[225]  Ting-Chao Chou,et al.  Theoretical Basis, Experimental Design, and Computerized Simulation of Synergism and Antagonism in Drug Combination Studies , 2006, Pharmacological Reviews.

[226]  C. Delerue-Matos,et al.  Influencing factors on bread-derived exposure to ochratoxin A: type, origin and composition. , 2010, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[227]  J. Pestka,et al.  The role of biomarkers in evaluating human health concerns from fungal contaminants in food , 2012, Nutrition Research Reviews.

[228]  J. Mañes,et al.  Exposure assessment approach through mycotoxin/creatinine ratio evaluation in urine by GC-MS/MS. , 2014, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[229]  D. Dupont,et al.  Patulin and ochratoxin A co-occurrence and their bioaccessibility in processed cereal-based foods: A contribution for Portuguese children risk assessment. , 2016, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[230]  C. Juan,et al.  Levels of ochratoxin A in wheat and maize bread from the central zone of Portugal. , 2008, International journal of food microbiology.

[231]  G. Font,et al.  Exposure estimates to Fusarium mycotoxins through cereals intake. , 2013, Chemosphere.

[232]  M. Abdel-Wahhab,et al.  Mycotoxins and child health: the need for health risk assessment. , 2009, International journal of hygiene and environmental health.

[233]  A. Kortenkamp,et al.  Genotoxic mixtures and dissimilar action: concepts for prediction and assessment , 2013, Archives of Toxicology.

[234]  N. Özsoy,et al.  Effect of patulin on the interdigitating dendritic cells (IDCs) of rat thymus , 2008, Cell biochemistry and function.

[235]  F. Tomás-Barberán,et al.  An in vitro method to simulate phenolic compound release from the food matrix in the gastrointestinal tract , 2002 .

[236]  D. Dietrich,et al.  In vitro investigation of individual and combined cytotoxic effects of ochratoxin A and other selected mycotoxins on renal cells. , 2006, Toxicology in vitro : an international journal published in association with BIBRA.

[237]  M. Zain.  Impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals , 2011 .

[238]  S. De Henauw,et al.  Human biomonitoring of multiple mycotoxins in the Belgian population: Results of the BIOMYCO study. , 2015, Environment international.

[239]  H. Louro,et al.  Risk assessment of multiple mycotoxins in infant food consumed by Portuguese children – the contribute of the MYCOMIX project , 2015 .

[240]  H. Pettersson.  Toxicity and risks with T-2 and HT-2 toxins in cereals , 2011 .

[241]  F. Chen,et al.  Natural Occurrence, Analysis, and Prevention of Mycotoxins in Fruits and their Processed Products , 2014, Critical reviews in food science and nutrition.

[242]  J. Essigmann,et al.  Prenatal exposure of mice to the human liver carcinogen aflatoxin B1 reveals a critical window of susceptibility to genetic change , 2014, International journal of cancer.

[243]  P. Alvito,et al.  Single-compound and cumulative risk assessment of mycotoxins present in breakfast cereals consumed by children from Lisbon region, Portugal. , 2015, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[244]  A. Akdeniz,et al.  Occurrence of ochratoxin A in cereal-derived food products commonly consumed in Turkey , 2012 .

[245]  P. Gramatica,et al.  Joint algal toxicity of 16 dissimilarly acting chemicals is predictable by the concept of independent action. , 2003, Aquatic toxicology.

[246]  Y. Schneider,et al.  Interaction of ochratoxin A with human intestinal Caco-2 cells: possible implication of a multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP2). , 2003, Toxicology letters.

[247]  P. Alvito,et al.  Characterization of in vitro effects of patulin on intestinal epithelial and immune cells. , 2016, Toxicology letters.

[248]  R. Manderville,et al.  An update on direct genotoxicity as a molecular mechanism of ochratoxin a carcinogenicity. , 2012, Chemical research in toxicology.

[249]  H. S. Hussein,et al.  Toxicity, metabolism, and impact of mycotoxins on humans and animals. , 2001, Toxicology.

[250]  J. Pereira,et al.  Determination of ochratoxin A content in wheat bread samples collected from the Algarve and Braganca regions, Portugal : Winter 2007 , 2009 .

[251]  A. Venâncio,et al.  Fungi and ochratoxin A detected in healthy grapes for wine production , 2006, Letters in applied microbiology.

[252]  H. El‐Nezami,et al.  Individual and combined cytotoxic effects of Fusarium toxins (deoxynivalenol, nivalenol, zearalenone and fumonisins B1) on swine jejunal epithelial cells. , 2013, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[253]  M. J. Silva,et al.  Challenges in risk assessment of multiple mycotoxins in food , 2016 .

[254]  I. Oswald,et al.  Mycotoxin co-contamination of food and feed: meta-analysis of publications describing toxicological interactions , 2011 .

[255]  M. Faria,et al.  Determination of patulin in apple and quince products by GC-MS using 13C5-7 patulin as internal standard. , 2009 .

[256]  D.P.K.H. Pereboom-de Fauw,et al.  Determination of mean daily intakes of aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin M1, ochratoxin A, trichothecenes and fumonisins in 24-hour diets of children in the Netherlands. , 2009 .

[257]  L. Abrunhosa,et al.  Determination of ochratoxin A in wine grapes: comparison of extraction procedures and method validation , 2004 .

[258]  Claire Bourlieu,et al.  Specificity of Infant Digestive Conditions: Some Clues for Developing Relevant In Vitro Models , 2011, Critical reviews in food science and nutrition.

[259]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Quantitative dietary exposure assessment of the Catalonian population (Spain) to the mycotoxin deoxynivalenol , 2011, Food additives & contaminants. Part A, Chemistry, analysis, control, exposure & risk assessment.

[260]  G. Tenore,et al.  Risk analysis of main mycotoxins occurring in food for children: An overview. , 2015, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[261]  Y. Hassan,et al.  A Novel Peptide-Binding Motifs Inference Approach to Understand Deoxynivalenol Molecular Toxicity , 2015, Toxins.

[262]  J. Fantini,et al.  The mycotoxin ochratoxin A alters intestinal barrier and absorption functions but has no effect on chloride secretion. , 2001, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[263]  I. Hertz-Picciotto,et al.  Risk characterisation of chemicals in food and diet. , 2003, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[264]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Occurrence and exposure assessment of aflatoxins in Catalonia (Spain). , 2013, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[265]  O. Herbarth,et al.  Individual and combined effects of mycotoxins from typical indoor moulds. , 2013, Toxicology in vitro : an international journal published in association with BIBRA.

[266]  I. Oswald,et al.  Effect of Deoxynivalenol and Other Type B Trichothecenes on the Intestine: A Review , 2014, Toxins.

[267]  J. Simal-Gándara,et al.  State of the art on public risk assessment of combined human exposure to multiple chemical contaminants , 2016 .

[268]  S. Pepeljnjak,et al.  Genotoxicity of Fumonisin B1, Beauvericin and Ochratoxin A in Porcine Kidney PK15 Cells: Effects of Individual and Combined Treatment , 2008 .

[269]  E. Creppy.  Update of survey, regulation and toxic effects of mycotoxins in Europe. , 2002, Toxicology letters.

[270]  Rudolf Krska,et al.  LC-MS/MS-based multibiomarker approaches for the assessment of human exposure to mycotoxins , 2013, Analytical and Bioanalytical Chemistry.

[271]  C. Juan,et al.  Determination of ochratoxin A in organic and non-organic cereals and cereal products from Spain and Portugal , 2008 .

[272]  A. Visconti,et al.  An Overview on Toxigenic Fungi and Mycotoxins in Europe , 2004, Springer Netherlands.

[273]  R. Krska,et al.  Assessment of human deoxynivalenol exposure using an LC-MS/MS based biomarker method. , 2012, Toxicology letters.

[274]  J. A. Mccay,et al.  Immunological evaluation of the mycotoxin patulin in female B6C3F1 mice. , 1998, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[275]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Occurrence of zearalenone, an oestrogenic mycotoxin, in Catalonia (Spain) and exposure assessment. , 2012, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[276]  B. Shao,et al.  Natural Occurrence of Alternaria Toxins in Wheat-Based Products and Their Dietary Exposure in China , 2015, PloS one.

[277]  L. Jacxsens,et al.  Human exposure to mycotoxins and their masked forms through cereal-based foods in Belgium. , 2013, Toxicology letters.

[278]  J. Anderson,et al.  Transmembrane proteins in the tight junction barrier. , 1999, Journal of the American Society of Nephrology : JASN.

[279]  J. Turner,et al.  Myosin light chain kinase: pulling the strings of epithelial tight junction function , 2012, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[280]  J. Essigmann,et al.  Aflatoxin B1-DNA adduct formation and mutagenicity in livers of neonatal male and female B6C3F1 mice. , 2011, Toxicological sciences : an official journal of the Society of Toxicology.

[281]  H. Larsen,et al.  Combined effects of selected Penicillium mycotoxins on in vitro proliferation of porcine lymphocytes , 2004, Mycopathologia.

[282]  T. Backhaus,et al.  Toxicity of a mixture of dissimilarly acting substances to natural algal communities: predictive power and limitations of independent action and concentration addition. , 2004, Environmental science & technology.

[283]  F. Berthiller,et al.  Masked mycotoxins: A review , 2012, Molecular nutrition & food research.

[284]  T. Chou,et al.  Quantitative analysis of dose-effect relationships: the combined effects of multiple drugs or enzyme inhibitors. , 1984, Advances in enzyme regulation.

[285]  H. V. van Egmond,et al.  Analysis of duplicate 24-hour diet samples for aflatoxin B1, aflatoxin M1 and ochratoxin A , 2005, Food additives and contaminants.

[286]  I. Oswald,et al.  Toxicological interactions between the mycotoxins deoxynivalenol, nivalenol and their acetylated derivatives in intestinal epithelial cells , 2014, Archives of Toxicology.

[287]  M. Ferrari,et al.  Simultaneous determination of deoxynivalenol, zearalenone, T-2 and HT-2 toxins in breakfast cereals and baby food by high-performance liquid chromatography and tandem mass spectrometry. , 2010, Journal of mass spectrometry : JMS.

[288]  A. Oomen,et al.  Risk assessment of patulin intake from apple containing products by young children , 2012 .

[289]  J. Dorne,et al.  Human and animal health risk assessments of chemicals in the food chain: comparative aspects and future perspectives. , 2013, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[290]  G. Perozzi,et al.  Effects of red wine on ochratoxin A toxicity in intestinal Caco-2/TC7 cells. , 2007, Toxicology in vitro : an international journal published in association with BIBRA.

[291]  C. Lemaire,et al.  Patulin induces apoptosis through ROS-mediated endoplasmic reticulum stress pathway. , 2015, Toxicological sciences : an official journal of the Society of Toxicology.

[292]  P. Markaki,et al.  Aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A in breakfast cereals from athens market: Occurrence and risk assessment , 2009 .

[293]  M. Jonker,et al.  Toxicity of binary mixtures of cadmium‐copper and carbendazim‐copper to the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans , 2004, Environmental toxicology and chemistry.

[294]  A. Salomonsson,et al.  Dietary intake of some important mycotoxins by the Swedish population , 2001, Food additives and contaminants.

[295]  G. Cuesta,et al.  Occurrence of deoxynivalenol and nivalenol in Spanish corn-based food products , 2008 .

[296]  B. Kabak,et al.  Co-occurrence of aflatoxins and ochratoxin A in cereal flours commercialised in Turkey , 2015 .

[297]  M. Jestoi,et al.  Mycotoxin production of selected Fusarium species at different culture conditions. , 2010, International journal of food microbiology.

[298]  I. Oswald,et al.  The Food-Associated Ribotoxin Deoxynivalenol Modulates Inducible NO Synthase in Human Intestinal Cell Model. , 2015, Toxicological sciences : an official journal of the Society of Toxicology.

[299]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Mycotoxins: occurrence, toxicology, and exposure assessment. , 2013, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[300]  J. Groopman,et al.  Public health impacts of foodborne mycotoxins. , 2014, Annual review of food science and technology.

[301]  P. Alvito,et al.  Occurrence of Aflatoxins and Ochratoxin A in Baby Foods in Portugal , 2010 .

[302]  G. Font,et al.  Toxicological interactions between the mycotoxins beauvericin, deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin in CHO-K1 cells in vitro. , 2011, Toxicon : official journal of the International Society on Toxinology.

[303]  R. Krska,et al.  Development and validation of a rapid multi-biomarker liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry method to assess human exposure to mycotoxins. , 2012, Rapid communications in mass spectrometry : RCM.

[304]  Elena Lizarraga,et al.  Co-occurrence of aflatoxins, ochratoxin A and zearalenone in breakfast cereals from spanish market , 2011 .

[305]  J. Mañes,et al.  Bioaccessibility of deoxynivalenol and its natural co-occurrence with ochratoxin A and aflatoxin B1 in Italian commercial pasta. , 2012, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[306]  M. Metzler,et al.  DNA-DNA cross-links contribute to the mutagenic potential of the mycotoxin patulin. , 2006, Toxicology letters.

[307]  H. M. Martins,et al.  Aflatoxin M1 in yoghurts in Portugal. , 2004, International journal of food microbiology.

[308]  H. P. van Egmond,et al.  Regulations and Limits for Mycotoxins in Fruits and Vegetables , 2008 .

[309]  C. Bacon,et al.  Effects of selected secondary metabolites of Fusarium moniliforme on unscheduled synthesis of DNA by rat primary hepatocytes. , 1992, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[310]  J. Rubert,et al.  Rapid mycotoxin analysis in human urine: a pilot study. , 2011, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[311]  M. Grütter,et al.  Caspases: key players in programmed cell death. , 2000, Current opinion in structural biology.

[312]  S. Piletsky,et al.  Analytical methods for determination of mycotoxins: a review. , 2009, Analytica chimica acta.

[313]  M. Signorini,et al.  Exposure assessment of mycotoxins in cow's milk in Argentina. , 2012, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[314]  A. Szabó,et al.  Determination of the amount of bioaccessible fumonisin B1 in different matrices after in vitro digestion. , 2015 .

[315]  B. Wershil,et al.  4. Gastrointestinal mucosal immunity. , 2008, The Journal of allergy and clinical immunology.

[316]  R. Havenaar,et al.  A computer-controlled system to simulate conditions of the large intestine with peristaltic mixing, water absorption and absorption of fermentation products , 1999, Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology.

[317]  J. Rubert,et al.  Occurrence of fumonisins in organic and conventional cereal-based products commercialized in France, Germany and Spain. , 2013, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[318]  John C Lipscomb,et al.  Gaining acceptance for the use of in vitro toxicity assays and QIVIVE in regulatory risk assessment. , 2015, Toxicology.

[319]  I. Oswald,et al.  New insights into mycotoxin mixtures: the toxicity of low doses of Type B trichothecenes on intestinal epithelial cells is synergistic. , 2013, Toxicology and applied pharmacology.

[320]  Lvhui Sun,et al.  Individual and combined cytotoxic effects of aflatoxin B1, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol and fumonisin B1 on BRL 3A rat liver cells. , 2015, Toxicon : official journal of the International Society on Toxinology.

[321]  J. Pestka,et al.  Immunomodulation by fungal toxins. , 2000, Journal of toxicology and environmental health. Part B, Critical reviews.

[322]  H. M. Martins,et al.  A six year survey (1999–2004) of the ocurrence of aflatoxin M1 in daily products produced in Portugal , 2005, Mycotoxin Research.

[323]  Davide Rondina,et al.  Mycotoxins and their effects on human and animal health , 2014 .

[324]  Y. Kodama,et al.  Role of p53 in the progression from ochratoxin A-induced DNA damage to gene mutations in the kidneys of mice. , 2015, Toxicological sciences : an official journal of the Society of Toxicology.

[325]  J. Mclaughlin,et al.  The mycotoxin patulin, modulates tight junctions in caco-2 cells. , 2009, Toxicology in vitro : an international journal published in association with BIBRA.

[326]  Philippe Verger,et al.  Combining analytical techniques, exposure assessment and biological effects for risk assessment of chemicals in food , 2009 .

[327]  Davide Ferrigo,et al.  Fusarium Toxins in Cereals: Occurrence, Legislation, Factors Promoting the Appearance and Their Management , 2016, Molecules.

[328]  Sharad Kumar,et al.  Old, new and emerging functions of caspases , 2014, Cell Death and Differentiation.

[329]  K. Nešić,et al.  Fusarial toxins: secondary metabolites of Fusarium fungi. , 2014, Reviews of environmental contamination and toxicology.

[330]  M. Schenk,et al.  The mucosal immune system at the gastrointestinal barrier. , 2008, Best practice & research. Clinical gastroenterology.

[331]  L. G. Rice,et al.  Methods for Detection and Quantitation of Fumonisins in Corn, Cereal Products and Animal Excreta. , 1994, Journal of food protection.

[332]  F. Papachristou,et al.  Mycotoxins’ Activity at Toxic and Sub-Toxic Concentrations: Differential Cytotoxic and Genotoxic Effects of Single and Combined Administration of Sterigmatocystin, Ochratoxin A and Citrinin on the Hepatocellular Cancer Cell Line Hep3B , 2014, International journal of environmental research and public health.

[333]  H. Håkansson,et al.  Cumulative health risk assessment of 17 perfluoroalkylated and polyfluoroalkylated substances (PFASs) in the Swedish population. , 2013, Environment international.

[334]  E. Schoen,et al.  Statistically designed experiments in a tiered approach to screen mixtures of Fusarium mycotoxins for possible interactions. , 2002, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[335]  Hans P. van Egmond,et al.  Regulations relating to mycotoxins in food , 2007 .

[336]  G. Font,et al.  Study of the cytotoxic activity of beauvericin and fusaproliferin and bioavailability in vitro on Caco-2 cells. , 2012, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[337]  H. M. Martins,et al.  Co-occurrence of patulin and citrinin in Portuguese apples with rotten spots , 2002, Food additives and contaminants.

[338]  S. Marín,et al.  Mycotoxin bioaccessibility/absorption assessment using in vitro digestion models: a review , 2013 .

[339]  A. Visconti,et al.  Assessment of Multi-Mycotoxin Exposure in Southern Italy by Urinary Multi-Biomarker Determination , 2014, Toxins.

[340]  C. Wild,et al.  The toxicology of aflatoxins as a basis for public health decisions. , 2002, Mutagenesis.

[341]  Maria João Silva,et al.  Role of Nanogenotoxicology Studies in Safety Evaluation of Nanomaterials , 2015 .

[342]  M. Peraica,et al.  Mycotoxicoses in children , 2014, Arhiv za higijenu rada i toksikologiju.

[343]  C. I. Bliss.  THE TOXICITY OF POISONS APPLIED JOINTLY1 , 1939 .

[344]  Harald L. Esch,et al.  The mycotoxin patulin reacts with DNA bases with and without previous conjugation to GSH: implication for related α,β-unsaturated carbonyl compounds? , 2014, Archives of Toxicology.

[345]  Giuseppe Caruso,et al.  Multiclass mycotoxin analysis in food, environmental and biological matrices with chromatography/mass spectrometry. , 2012, Mass spectrometry reviews.

[346]  I. Almeida,et al.  Fumonisins and deoxynivalenol in corn-based food products in Portugal. , 2008, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[347]  G. Cano-Sancho,et al.  Survey of patulin occurrence in apple juice and apple products in Catalonia, Spain, and an estimate of dietary intake , 2009, Food additives & contaminants. Part B, Surveillance.

[348]  A. Azqueta,et al.  Genotoxicity of Aflatoxin B1 and Ochratoxin A after simultaneous application of the in vivo micronucleus and comet assay. , 2015, Food and chemical toxicology : an international journal published for the British Industrial Biological Research Association.

[349]  S. Moukha,et al.  Synergistic effects of fumonisin B1 and ochratoxin A: are in vitro cytotoxicity data predictive of in vivo acute toxicity? , 2004, Toxicology.