Use-Phase Drives Lithium-Ion Battery Life Cycle Environmental Impacts When Used for Frequency Regulation.

Battery storage systems are attractive alternatives to conventional generators for frequency regulation due to their fast response time, high cycle efficiency, flexible scale, and decreasing cost. However, their implementation does not consistently reduce environmental impacts. To assess these impacts, we employed a life cycle assessment (LCA) framework. Our framework couples cradle-to-gate and end-of-life LCA data on lithium-ion batteries with a unit commitment and dispatch model. The model is run on a 9-bus power system with energy storage used for frequency regulation. The addition of energy storage changes generator commitment and dispatch, causing changes in the quantities of each fuel type consumed. This results in increased environmental impacts in most scenarios. The impacts caused by the changes in the power system operation (i.e., use-phase impacts) outweigh upstream and end-of-life impacts in the majority of scenarios analyzed with the magnitude most influenced by electricity mix and fuel price. Of parameters specific to the battery, round trip efficiency has the greatest effect.

[1]  Thierry Coosemans,et al.  Environmental performance of electricity storage systems for grid applications, a life cycle approach , 2015 .

[2]  Michael Q. Wang,et al.  Material and energy flows in the materials production, assembly, and end-of-life stages of the automotive lithium-ion battery life cycle , 2014 .

[3]  Yashen Lin,et al.  Emissions impacts of using energy storage for power system reserves , 2016 .

[4]  Gregory A. Keoleian,et al.  Evaluation of Life Cycle Assessment Recycling Allocation Methods , 2013 .

[5]  Jeremy Neubauer,et al.  The ability of battery second use strategies to impact plug-in electric vehicle prices and serve uti , 2011 .

[6]  Remus Teodorescu,et al.  Selection and Performance-Degradation Modeling of LiMO$_{2}$/Li$_{4}$Ti$_{5}$O $_{12}$ and LiFePO $_{4}$/C Battery Cells as Suitable Energy Storage Systems for Grid Integration With Wind Power Plants: An Example for the Primary Frequency Regulation Service , 2014, IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy.

[7]  Gregory A. Keoleian,et al.  Twelve Principles for Green Energy Storage in Grid Applications. , 2016, Environmental science & technology.

[8]  Subhashish Bhattacharya,et al.  Rule-Based Control of Battery Energy Storage for Dispatching Intermittent Renewable Sources , 2010, IEEE Transactions on Sustainable Energy.

[9]  C. Rydh,et al.  Energy analysis of batteries in photovoltaic systems. Part I: Performance and energy requirements , 2005 .

[10]  M. Webber,et al.  The impacts of storing solar energy in the home to reduce reliance on the utility , 2017, Nature Energy.

[11]  Timothy J. Wallington,et al.  Cradle-to-Gate Emissions from a Commercial Electric Vehicle Li-Ion Battery: A Comparative Analysis. , 2016, Environmental science & technology.

[12]  Seung-Don Choi,et al.  The Current Move of Lithium Ion Batteries Towards the Next Phase , 2012 .

[13]  Mark W. Verbrugge,et al.  Degradation of lithium ion batteries employing graphite negatives and nickel–cobalt–manganese oxide + spinel manganese oxide positives: Part 2, chemical–mechanical degradation model , 2014 .

[14]  Jianzhong Wu,et al.  Modelling and control of multi-type grid-scale energy storage for power system frequency response , 2016, 2016 IEEE 8th International Power Electronics and Motion Control Conference (IPEMC-ECCE Asia).

[15]  Jay Apt,et al.  Air emissions due to wind and solar power. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[16]  Anders Hammer Strømman,et al.  Life cycle environmental assessment of lithium-ion and nickel metal hydride batteries for plug-in hybrid and battery electric vehicles. , 2011, Environmental science & technology.

[17]  M. Doyle,et al.  Simulation and Optimization of the Dual Lithium Ion Insertion Cell , 1994 .

[18]  E. Williams,et al.  Learning dependent subsidies for lithium-ion electric vehicle batteries , 2015 .

[19]  Hyung Chul Kim,et al.  Energy payback and life‐cycle CO2 emissions of the BOS in an optimized 3·5 MW PV installation , 2006 .

[20]  Jay Apt,et al.  Emissions and Economics of Behind-the-Meter Electricity Storage. , 2017, Environmental science & technology.

[21]  Thomas Vogt,et al.  Comparative life cycle assessment of battery storage systems for stationary applications. , 2015, Environmental science & technology.

[22]  Maurizio Cellura,et al.  Life cycle assessment of storage systems: the case study of a sodium/nickel chloride battery , 2014 .

[23]  Roger Sathre,et al.  Energy and climate effects of second-life use of electric vehicle batteries in California through 2050 , 2015 .

[24]  Lars Ole Valøen,et al.  Life Cycle Assessment of a Lithium‐Ion Battery Vehicle Pack , 2014 .

[25]  Michael Gillenwater,et al.  Internalizing carbon costs in electricity markets: Using certificates in a load-based emissions trading scheme , 2009 .

[26]  Kevin G. Gallagher,et al.  The significance of Li-ion batteries in electric vehicle life-cycle energy and emissions and recycling's role in its reduction , 2015 .

[27]  Anders Hammer Strømman,et al.  Identifying key assumptions and differences in life cycle assessment studies of lithium-ion traction batteries with focus on greenhouse gas emissions , 2017 .

[28]  R D Zimmerman,et al.  MATPOWER: Steady-State Operations, Planning, and Analysis Tools for Power Systems Research and Education , 2011, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems.

[29]  D. Lew,et al.  The Western Wind and Solar Integration Study Phase 2 , 2013 .

[30]  Daniel S. Kirschen,et al.  Optimal Battery Participation in Frequency Regulation Markets , 2017, IEEE Transactions on Power Systems.

[31]  L. Gaines,et al.  Status of life cycle inventories for batteries , 2012 .

[32]  B. Mathiesen,et al.  Energy system analysis of marginal electricity supply in consequential LCA , 2010 .

[33]  Vasilis Fthenakis,et al.  Life-cycle analysis of flow-assisted nickel zinc-, manganese dioxide-, and valve-regulated lead-acid batteries designed for demand-charge reduction , 2015 .

[34]  D. Kammen,et al.  Driving rural energy access: a second-life application for electric-vehicle batteries , 2014 .

[35]  Shriram Santhanagopalan,et al.  Degradation mechanisms and lifetime prediction for lithium-ion batteries — A control perspective , 2015, 2015 American Control Conference (ACC).

[36]  C. Rydh.  Environmental assessment of vanadium redox and lead-acid batteries for stationary energy storage , 1999 .

[37]  Simona Onori,et al.  Capacity and power fade cycle-life model for plug-in hybrid electric vehicle lithium-ion battery cells containing blended spinel and layered-oxide positive electrodes , 2015 .

[38]  Remus Teodorescu,et al.  Primary frequency regulation with Li-ion battery energy storage system: A case study for Denmark , 2013, 2013 IEEE ECCE Asia Downunder.

[39]  Paul Denholm,et al.  Emissions impacts and benefits of plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and vehicle-to-grid services. , 2009, Environmental science & technology.

[40]  Remus Teodorescu,et al.  Operation of a Grid-Connected Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage System for Primary Frequency Regulation: A Battery Lifetime Perspective , 2017, IEEE Transactions on Industry Applications.

[41]  Nenad G. Nenadic,et al.  Environmental trade-offs across cascading lithium-ion battery life cycles , 2015, The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment.

[42]  Haegyeom Kim,et al.  Understanding the Degradation Mechanisms of LiNi0.5Co0.2Mn0.3O2 Cathode Material in Lithium Ion Batteries , 2014 .

[43]  Dominic A. Notter,et al.  Contribution of Li-ion batteries to the environmental impact of electric vehicles. , 2010, Environmental science & technology.

[44]  Eric S Hittinger,et al.  Bulk energy storage increases United States electricity system emissions. , 2015, Environmental science & technology.

[45]  M. Verbrugge,et al.  Degradation of lithium ion batteries employing graphite negatives and nickel-cobalt-manganese oxide + spinel manganese oxide positives: Part 1, aging mechanisms and life estimation , 2014 .

[46]  Daniel S. Kirschen,et al.  Modeling of Lithium-Ion Battery Degradation for Cell Life Assessment , 2018, IEEE Transactions on Smart Grid.

[47]  Jihong Wang,et al.  Overview of current development in electrical energy storage technologies and the application potential in power system operation , 2015 .

[48]  Gregory A. Keoleian,et al.  Vanadium redox flow batteries to reach greenhouse gas emissions targets in an off-grid configuration , 2015 .

[49]  John Sullivan,et al.  Impact of recycling on cradle-to-gate energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions of automotive lithium-ion batteries. , 2012, Environmental science & technology.

[50]  Daniel Weisser,et al.  A guide to life-cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from electric supply technologies , 2007 .

[51]  Gregory A Keoleian,et al.  Comparative Assessment of Models and Methods To Calculate Grid Electricity Emissions. , 2016, Environmental science & technology.

[52]  Joel Sokol,et al.  New approach for optimal electricity planning and dispatching with hourly time-scale air quality and health considerations , 2015, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[53]  G. G. Stokes.  "J." , 1890, The New Yale Book of Quotations.

[54]  Paul Denholm,et al.  Life cycle energy requirements and greenhouse gas emissions from large scale energy storage systems , 2004 .

[55]  Jan Christian Koj,et al.  Life Cycle Assessment of Primary Control Provision by Battery Storage Systems and Fossil Power Plants , 2015 .