What Have We Learned That Is Critical in Understanding Leadership Perceptions and Leader-Performance Relations?

In this article, we provide a brief review of the current and past research on leadership perceptions and performance. We then describe four principles that have emerged from many decades of research, which can provide new directions for future leadership theory and research.

[1]  B. Greene.  The Hidden Reality: Parallel Universes and the Deep Laws of the Cosmos , 2011 .

[2]  Robert G. Lord,et al.  Prototypes and scripts: The effects of alternative methods of processing information on rating accuracy , 1987 .

[3]  Angela Y. Lee,et al.  The pleasures and pains of distinct self-construals: the role of interdependence in regulatory focus. , 2000, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[4]  Jordan B. Peterson,et al.  Psychological entropy: a framework for understanding uncertainty-related anxiety. , 2012, Psychological review.

[5]  Donald H. Kluemper,et al.  Does talking the talk help walking the walk? An examination of the effect of vocal attractiveness in leader effectiveness , 2011 .

[6]  Eduardo Salas,et al.  Do Familiar Teammates Request and Accept More Backup? Transactive Memory in Air Traffic Control , 2009, Hum. Factors.

[7]  Susan Elaine Murphy,et al.  Cross-cultural variations in leadership perceptions and attribution of charisma to the leader , 2003 .

[8]  Ashleigh Shelby Rosette,et al.  The White standard: racial bias in leader categorization. , 2008, The Journal of applied psychology.

[9]  T. Judge,et al.  Personality and leadership: a qualitative and quantitative review. , 2002, The Journal of applied psychology.

[10]  Michelle K. Ryan,et al.  Think crisis-think female: the glass cliff and contextual variation in the think manager-think male stereotype. , 2011, The Journal of applied psychology.

[11]  Eean R. Crawford,et al.  A Configural Theory of Team Processes: Accounting for the Structure of Taskwork and Teamwork , 2013 .

[12]  T. Judge,et al.  Intelligence and leadership: a quantitative review and test of theoretical propositions. , 2004, The Journal of applied psychology.

[13]  C. E. Puente,et al.  The Essence of Chaos , 1995 .

[14]  S. Read,et al.  A neural network model of the structure and dynamics of human personality. , 2010, Psychological review.

[15]  E. Morrison,et al.  NEWCOMERS' RELATIONSHIPS: THE ROLE OF SOCIAL NETWORK TIES DURING SOCIALIZATION , 2002 .

[16]  S. Shamay-Tsoory.  The Neural Bases for Empathy , 2011, The Neuroscientist : a review journal bringing neurobiology, neurology and psychiatry.

[17]  P. Whiteley,et al.  Leadership perceptions as a function of race-occupation fit: the case of Asian Americans. , 2010, The Journal of applied psychology.

[18]  R. Lord,et al.  Identity, deep structure and the development of leadership skill , 2005 .

[19]  Roseanne J. Foti,et al.  A test of leadership categorization theory: Internal structure, information processing, and leadership perceptions , 1984 .

[20]  Michael D. Mumford,et al.  The typical leadership study: Assumptions, implications, and potential remedies , 2007 .

[21]  Tammy E. Beck,et al.  RADICAL CHANGE ACCIDENTALLY: THE EMERGENCE AND AMPLIFICATION OF SMALL CHANGE , 2007 .

[22]  Stefanie K Johnson.  I second that emotion: Effects of emotional contagion and affect at work on leader and follower outcomes ☆ , 2008 .

[23]  Robert G. Lord,et al.  An information processing approach to social perceptions, leadership and behavioral measurement in organizations. , 1985 .

[24]  Roseanne J. Foti,et al.  Multi-level implications of framing leadership perceptions as a dynamic process. , 2008 .

[25]  Robert E. Ployhart,et al.  Emergence of the Human Capital Resource: A Multilevel Model , 2011 .

[26]  Neil M. A. Hauenstein,et al.  Pattern and variable approaches in leadership emergence and effectiveness. , 2007, The Journal of applied psychology.

[27]  C. B. Bauer,et al.  Does a structured free recall intervention reduce the effect of stereotypes on performance ratings and by what cognitive mechanism? , 2007, The Journal of applied psychology.

[28]  Stephen E. Humphrey,et al.  Developing a theory of the strategic core of teams: a role composition model of team performance. , 2009, The Journal of applied psychology.

[29]  Seymour Adler,et al.  Cognitive complexity and the structure of implicit leadership theories. , 1981 .

[30]  N. Ambady,et al.  A dynamic interactive theory of person construal. , 2011, Psychological review.

[31]  Thomas W. Schubert,et al.  High in the Hierarchy: How Vertical Location and Judgments of Leaders' Power are Interrelated , 2007 .

[32]  Robert Chia,et al.  Choice, Chance, and Unintended Consequences in Strategic Change: A Process Understanding of the Rise and Fall of NorthCo Automotive , 2013 .

[33]  Robin Martin,et al.  Implicit leadership theories in applied settings: factor structure, generalizability, and stability over time. , 2004, The Journal of applied psychology.

[34]  Robert G. Lord,et al.  Leadership Processes and Follower Self-identity , 2003 .

[35]  Kyle Nash,et al.  PERSONALITY PROCESSES AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES Anxious Uncertainty and Reactive Approach Motivation (RAM) , 2010 .

[36]  B. McKelvey,et al.  Complexity Leadership Theory: Shifting leadership from the industrial age to the knowledge era ! , 2007 .

[37]  유화자.  기독교 사역과 Leadership , 1997 .

[38]  D Eden,et al.  Implicit leadership theory as a determinant of the factor structure underlying supervisory behavior scales. , 1975, The Journal of applied psychology.

[39]  Jean Decety,et al.  MIMICRY AND ME: THE IMPACT OF MIMICRY ON SELF-CONSTRUAL , 2007 .

[40]  S. Karau,et al.  Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. , 2002, Psychological review.

[41]  Albert A. Cannella,et al.  Top Management Team Functional Background Diversity and Firm Performance: Examining The Roles of Team Member Colocation and Environmental Uncertainty , 2008 .

[42]  Robert G. Lord,et al.  Executive Leadership and Organizational Performance: Suggestions for a New Theory and Methodology , 1988 .

[43]  R. Kark,et al.  Motivation to Lead, Motivation to Follow: The Role of the Self-Regulatory Focus in Leadership Processes , 2007 .

[44]  M. Hogg,et al.  Leadership, self, and identity: A review and research agenda , 2004 .

[45]  M. Merry.  Shared Leadership: Reframing the Hows and Whys of Leadership , 2004 .

[46]  J. Meindl,et al.  The romance of leadership as a follower-centric theory: A , 1995 .

[47]  M. Kilduff,et al.  The ties that lead: A social network approach to leadership , 2005 .

[48]  Troy V. Mumford,et al.  The leadership skills strataplex: Leadership skill requirements across organizational levels , 2007 .

[49]  Alison L. O’Malley,et al.  Incorporating Embodied Cognition into Sensemaking Theory: A Theoretical Integration of Embodied Processes in a Leadership Context , 2009 .

[50]  James H. Dulebohn,et al.  A Meta-Analysis of Antecedents and Consequences of Leader-Member Exchange , 2012 .

[51]  Daniel A. Levinthal,et al.  Looking Forward and Looking Backward: Cognitive and Experiential Search , 2000 .

[52]  B. Greene,et al.  The fabric of the cosmos : space, time, and the texture of reality , 2004 .

[53]  Chu Hsiang Chang,et al.  Not all leader–member exchanges are created equal: Importance of leader relational identity , 2010 .

[54]  R. Lord,et al.  Implicit effects of justice on self-identity. , 2010, The Journal of applied psychology.

[55]  I. Blanchette,et al.  The influence of affect on higher level cognition: A review of research on interpretation, judgement, decision making and reasoning , 2010 .

[56]  L. Barsalou,et al.  Embodiment in Attitudes, Social Perception, and Emotion , 2005, Personality and social psychology review : an official journal of the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, Inc.

[57]  S. Kozlowski,et al.  Embedding Ethical Leadership within and across Organization Levels , 2012 .

[58]  Kara A. Incalcaterra,et al.  A meta-analysis of team-efficacy, potency, and performance: interdependence and level of analysis as moderators of observed relationships. , 2002, The Journal of applied psychology.

[59]  Tiffany Keller.  Parental images as a guide to leadership sensemaking: an attachment perspective on implicit leadership theories , 2003 .

[60]  Barry M. Staw,et al.  Attribution of the "causes" of performance: A general alternative interpretation of cross-sectional research on organizations. , 1975 .

[61]  J. S. Phillips,et al.  Effects of a temporal delay in rating on leader behavior descriptions: A laboratory investigation. , 1981 .

[62]  W. Boeker.  Strategic Change: The Influence Of Managerial Characteristics And Organizational Growth , 1997 .

[63]  F. Morgeson.  The external leadership of self-managing teams: intervening in the context of novel and disruptive events. , 2005, The Journal of applied psychology.

[64]  H. Ibarra,et al.  Identity As Narrative: Prevalence, Effectiveness, and Consequences of Narrative Identity Work in Macro Work Role Transitions , 2010 .

[65]  E. Page‐Gould,et al.  Listen to your heart: when false somatic feedback shapes moral behavior. , 2013, Journal of experimental psychology. General.

[66]  Jochen Koch.  Inscribed Strategies: Exploring the Organizational Nature of Strategic Lock-in , 2011 .

[67]  Kristen M Shockley,et al.  Protégé anxiety attachment and feedback in mentoring relationships. , 2010 .

[68]  Loren J. Naidoo,et al.  Speech imagery and perceptions of charisma: The mediating role of positive affect , 2008 .

[69]  A. Dijksterhuis,et al.  A Theory of Unconscious Thought , 2006, Perspectives on psychological science : a journal of the Association for Psychological Science.

[70]  Leslie K. John,et al.  Good Intentions, Optimistic Self-Predictions, and Missed Opportunities , 2011 .

[71]  James G. Hunt,et al.  The effects of visionary and crisis-responsive charisma on followers: An experimental examination of two kinds of charismatic leadership , 1999 .

[72]  Bobby J. Calder,et al.  An Attribution Theory of Leadership , 1977 .

[73]  Stephen E. Humphrey,et al.  TRAIT AND BEHAVIORAL THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP: AN INTEGRATION AND META-ANALYTIC TEST OF THEIR RELATIVE VALIDITY , 2011 .

[74]  Allen C. Bluedorn,et al.  Leaders, followers, and time , 2008 .

[75]  F. Drasgow,et al.  Toward a theory of individual differences and leadership: understanding the motivation to lead. , 2001, The Journal of applied psychology.

[76]  J. Balogun,et al.  Organizational Restructuring and Middle Manager Sensemaking , 2004 .

[77]  J. George,et al.  Dual Tuning in a Supportive Context: Joint Contributions of Positive Mood, Negative Mood, and Supervisory Behaviors to Employee Creativity , 2007 .

[78]  M. Uhl‐Bien,et al.  Complexity Leadership in Bureaucratic Forms of Organizing: A Meso Model , 2009 .

[79]  F. Brodbeck,et al.  More than meets the eye: The role of subordinates' self-perceptions in leader categorization processes☆ , 2011 .

[80]  Ranjay Gulati,et al.  The Rise and Fall of Small Worlds: Exploring the Dynamics of Social Structure , 2013 .

[81]  James S. Phillips,et al.  Schematic information processing and perceptions of leadership in problem-solving groups. , 1982 .

[82]  Jessica E. Dinh,et al.  Developments in implicit leadership theory and cognitive science: Applications to improving measurement and understanding alternatives to hierarchical leadership , 2010 .

[83]  Abraham Carmeli,et al.  How top management team behavioral integration and behavioral complexity enable organizational ambidexterity: The moderating role of contextual ambidexterity , 2009 .

[84]  E. Jaques,et al.  In praise of hierarchy. , 1990, Harvard business review.

[85]  R. Lord,et al.  Multi-level information-processing explanations of followers' leadership perceptions , 1995 .

[86]  Jari-Erik Nurmi,et al.  Change in Newcomers' Supervisor Support and Socialization Outcomes After Organizational Entry , 2009 .

[87]  K. WeiK..  The Collapse of Sensemaking in Organizations: The Mann Gulch Disaster , 2009, STUDI ORGANIZZATIVI.

[88]  F. Tuerlinckx,et al.  Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Feelings Change : Accounting for Individual Differences in the Temporal Dynamics of Affect , 2010 .

[89]  Ruth Wageman,et al.  Leading Teams When the Time is Right: Finding the Best Moments to Act , 2009 .

[90]  D. Day,et al.  Longitudinal tests of an integrative model of leader development: Charting and understanding developmental trajectories☆ , 2011 .

[91]  Christopher B. Bingham,et al.  The Process of Schema Emergence: Assimilation, Deconstruction, Unitization and the Plurality of Analogies , 2013 .

[92]  S. Dehaene,et al.  Towards a cognitive neuroscience of consciousness: basic evidence and a workspace framework , 2001, Cognition.

[93]  Nitin Nohria,et al.  What really works. , 2003, Harvard business review.

[94]  R. Arvey,et al.  The determinants of leadership role occupancy: Genetic and personality factors. , 2006 .

[95]  Stanley M. Halpin,et al.  An Integrative Approach to Leader Development: Connecting Adult Development, Identity, and Expertise , 2008 .

[96]  Robert G. Lord,et al.  A framework for understanding leadership and individual requisite complexity , 2011 .

[97]  Douglas J. Brown,et al.  Elaborating the construct of transformational leadership: The role of affect , 2005 .

[98]  Sabine Sonnentag,et al.  Time in organizational research: Catching up on a long neglected topic in order to improve theory , 2012 .

[99]  R. Lord.  Functional leadership behavior: Measurement and relation to social power and leadership perceptions. , 1977 .

[100]  W. Fleeson.  Toward a structure- and process-integrated view of personality: traits as density distribution of states. , 2001, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[101]  F. Strack,et al.  Approach and avoidance: the influence of proprioceptive and exteroceptive cues on encoding of affective information. , 2000, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[102]  L. Ross.  The Intuitive Psychologist And His Shortcomings: Distortions in the Attribution Process1 , 1977 .

[103]  J. Bono,et al.  Charisma, positive emotions and mood contagion , 2006 .

[104]  Lisa Dragoni,et al.  Understanding the emergence of state goal orientation in organizational work groups: the role of leadership and multilevel climate perceptions. , 2005, The Journal of applied psychology.

[105]  Vanessa Urch Druskat,et al.  Emotional intelligence as the basis of leadership emergence in self-managing teams ☆ , 2002 .

[106]  Robert G. Lord,et al.  An Information‐processing Perspective on Leadership and Culture: A Case for Connectionist Architecture , 2000 .

[107]  D. S. Derue,et al.  Who will Lead and Who will Follow? a Social Process of Leadership Identity Construction in Organizations , 2010 .

[108]  R. Lord,et al.  Implicit leadership theory: A potential threat to the internal validity of leader behavior questionnaires , 1977 .

[109]  R. Bradley MacKay,et al.  The role of hindsight in foresight: refining strategic reasoning , 2004 .

[110]  F. Morgeson,et al.  The development of leader-member exchanges: Exploring how personality and performance influence leader and member relationships over time , 2009 .

[111]  L. Tiedens,et al.  Anger and advancement versus sadness and subjugation: the effect of negative emotion expressions on social status conferral. , 2001, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[112]  Fred O. Walumbwa,et al.  Early life experiences as determinants of leadership role occupancy : The importance of parental in fl uence and rule breaking behavior , 2009 .

[113]  Serena Chen,et al.  The relational self: an interpersonal social-cognitive theory. , 2002, Psychological review.

[114]  J. Diefendorff,et al.  Self-regulation at work. , 2010, Annual review of psychology.

[115]  R. Lord,et al.  Leadership and collective requisite complexity , 2011 .

[116]  Kristin N. Saboe,et al.  Measuring Implicit Traits in Organizational Research: Development of an Indirect Measure of Employee Implicit Self-Concept , 2011 .

[117]  N. Gillespie,et al.  Trust Repair After An Organization-Level Failure , 2009 .

[118]  Kristyn A. Scott,et al.  Female first, leader second? Gender bias in the encoding of leadership behavior , 2006 .

[119]  S. Hannah,et al.  Different Hats, Different Obligations: Plural Occupational Identities and Situated Moral Judgments , 2012 .

[120]  Hall,et al.  Sex, Task, and Behavioral Flexibility Effects on Leadership Perceptions. , 1998, Organizational behavior and human decision processes.

[121]  R. Lord,et al.  Leadership and knowledge: Symbolic, connectionist, and embodied perspectives , 2011 .

[122]  Fred O. Walumbwa,et al.  Linking ethical leadership to employee performance: The roles of leader-member exchange, self-efficacy, and organizational identification , 2011 .

[123]  P. Devine.  Stereotypes and prejudice: Their automatic and controlled components. , 1989 .

[124]  R. Mann.  A review of the relationships between personality and performance in small groups. , 1959 .

[125]  R. Lord,et al.  System Constraints on Leadership Perceptions, Behavior, and Influence: An Example of Connectionist Level Processes , 2008 .

[126]  Roseanne J. Foti,et al.  Know thy self, know thy leader: Contributions of a pattern-oriented approach to examining leader perceptions , 2012 .

[127]  Claudia C. Cogliser,et al.  Scholarly leadership of the study of leadership: A review of The Leadership Quarterly's second decade, 2000-2009. , 2010 .

[128]  Jessica E. Dinh,et al.  Implications of dispositional and process views of traits for individual difference research in leadership , 2012 .

[129]  Tammy L. Rapp,et al.  Laying the foundation for successful team performance trajectories: The roles of team charters and performance strategies. , 2009, The Journal of applied psychology.

[130]  B Cook,et al.  WITH AN EYE TOWARD THE FUTURE , 1992 .

[131]  Birgit Schyns,et al.  The face of leadership: perceiving leaders from facial expression , 2012 .

[132]  Loren J. Naidoo,et al.  “Seeing” is retrieving: Recovering emotional content in leadership ratings through visualization , 2010 .

[133]  Jana Uher,et al.  Personality Psychology: Lexical Approaches, Assessment Methods, and Trait Concepts Reveal Only Half of the Story—Why it is Time for a Paradigm Shift , 2013, Integrative Psychological and Behavioral Science.

[134]  Fred O. Walumbwa,et al.  RETRACTED: Early life experiences as determinants of leadership role occupancy: The importance of parental influence and rule breaking behavior , 2009 .

[135]  M. Uhl‐Bien,et al.  Leadership in complex organizations , 2001 .

[136]  R. Hogan,et al.  Leadership and the fate of organizations. , 2008, The American psychologist.