Saltwater Pearls from the Pre- to Early Columbian Era: A Gemological and Radiocarbon Dating Study

ing is permitted with credit to the source. Libraries are permitted to photocopy beyond the limits of U.S. copyright law for private use of patrons. Instructors are permitted to reproduce isolated articles and photographs/images owned by G&G for noncommercial classroom use without fee. Use of photographs/images under copyright by external parties is prohibited without the express permission of the photographer or owner of the image, as listed in the credits. For other copying, reprint, or republication permission, please contact the Managing Editor. Gems & Gemology is published quarterly by the Gemological Institute of America, a nonprofit educational organization for the gem and jewelry industry. Postmaster: Return undeliverable copies of Gems & Gemology to GIA, The Robert Mouawad Campus, 5345 Armada Drive, Carlsbad, CA 92008. Our Canadian goods and service registration number

[1]  G. Dalen,et al.  Raman hyperspectral imaging and analysis of fat spreads , 2017 .

[2]  J. Emmett.  Fluxes and the Heat Treatment of Ruby and Sapphire , 2016 .

[3]  D. Marshall,et al.  Emerald deposits around the world, their similarities and differences , 2016 .

[4]  Robert T. Downs,et al.  The power of databases: The RRUFF project , 2016 .

[5]  I. Pignatelli,et al.  Colombian trapiche emeralds : recent advances in understanding their formation , 2015 .

[6]  H. Gilg,et al.  D UAL -C OLOR D OUBLE S TARS IN R UBY , S APPHIRE , AND Q UARTZ : C AUSE AND H ISTORICAL A CCOUNT , 2015 .

[7]  R. Dayvault.  Genesis and Classification of Agates and Jaspers: A New Theory by Marco Campos-Venuti, Printed by Tophgrafia Luciani, Rome, Italy. Order from www.agatesandjaspers.com. 160 pages; 2012; $45 plus shipping (softbound). , 2014 .

[8]  J. Laird.  EARTH MATERIALS: Introduction to Mineralogy and Petrology , 2014 .

[9]  I. Hajdas,et al.  Age Determination of Pearls: A New Approach for Pearl Testing and Identification , 2013, Radiocarbon.

[10]  Jens Götze.  ORIGIN, MINERALOGY, NOMENCLATURE AND PROVENANCE OF SILICA AND SIO2 ROCKS A KOVAKŐZETEK EREDETE, TERMINOLÓGIÁJA ÉS SZÁRMAZÁSI HELYE , 2010 .

[11]  R. Kostov.  REVIEW OF THE MINERALOGICAL SYSTEMATICS OF JASPER AND RELATED ROCKS 1 A JÁSPIS ÉS A VELE ROKON KOVAKŐZETEK ÁSVÁNYTANI OSZTÁLYOZÁSA , 2010 .

[12]  James E. Shigley,et al.  The "Type" Classification System of Diamonds and Its Importance in Gemology , 2009 .

[13]  G. Bosshart,et al.  Colour-change garnets from Madagascar: variation of chemical, spectroscopic and colorimetric properties , 2009 .

[14]  M. Strecker,et al.  Climatic forcing of asymmetric orogenic evolution in the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia , 2008 .

[15]  D. Perugini,et al.  Tourmaline nodules from Capo Bianco aplite (Elba Island, Italy): an example of diffusion limited aggregation growth in a magmatic system , 2007 .

[16]  M. A. Legodi,et al.  The preparation of magnetite, goethite, hematite and maghemite of pigment quality from mill scale iron waste , 2007 .

[17]  M. Ferrari,et al.  The nature of Ti-rich inclusions responsible for asterism in verneuil-grown corundums , 2006 .

[18]  E. Matsumoto,et al.  A Batch Preparation Method for Graphite Targets With Low Background for AMS 14C Measurements , 1993, Radiocarbon.

[19]  L. Kiefert,et al.  X-ray luminescence, a valuable test in pearl identification , 2005 .

[20]  A. Romero.  Death and Taxes: the Case of the Depletion of Pearl Oyster Beds in Sixteenth‐Century Venezuela , 2003 .

[21]  L. Troccoli,et al.  History of the Atlantic Pearl-Oyster, Pinctata imbricata,Industry in Venezuela and Colombia, with Biological and Ecological Observations , 2003 .

[22]  M. Manutchehr-Danai.  Dictionary of gems and gemology , 2000 .

[23]  J. A. Romero.  Cubagua’s Pearl-Oyster Beds: The First Depletion of a Natural Resource Caused by Europeans in the American Continent , 1999 .

[24]  N. Saunders.  Biographies of brilliance : pearls, transformations of matter and being, c. AD 1492 , 1999 .

[25]  Mary L. Johnson,et al.  Opal from Shewa Province, Ethiopia , 1996 .

[26]  A. Heuer,et al.  On basal slip and basal twinning in sapphire (α-Al2O3)—I. Basal slip revisited , 1996 .

[27]  W. McDonough,et al.  The composition of the Earth , 1995 .

[28]  W. Gutmannsbauer,et al.  Structural and chemical investigations on shells and pearls of nacre forming salt- and fresh-water bivalve molluscs , 1994 .

[29]  E. Fritsch,et al.  Type IIb diamond thin films deposited onto near-colorless natural gem diamonds , 1993 .

[30]  M. Phillips,et al.  Titania precipitation in sapphire containing iron and titanium , 1991 .

[31]  E. T. Hall,et al.  Radiocarbon dating of the Shroud of Turin , 1989, Nature.

[32]  K. Schmetzer,et al.  Morphology and twinning in Chatham synthetic blue sapphire , 1988 .

[33]  K. Schmetzer.  On twinning in natural and synthetic flux-grown ruby , 1987 .

[34]  T. Linick,et al.  Preparation of Small Samples for 14C Accelerator Targets by Catalytic Reduction of CO , 1987, Radiocarbon.

[35]  E. A. Wachter,et al.  Exchange of oxygen isotopes in carbon dioxide-phosporic acid systems , 1985 .

[36]  D. Dirlam,et al.  Pearl Fashion Through the Ages , 1985 .

[37]  J. Latendresse,et al.  Freshwater Pearls of North America , 1984 .

[38]  A. Heuer,et al.  Precipitation in star sapphire III. Chemical effects accompanying precipitation , 1980 .

[39]  R. E. Tressler,et al.  Deformation Behavior of Sapphire Via the Prismatic Slip System , 1980 .

[40]  Kurt Nassau,et al.  Gems Made by Man , 1980 .

[41]  R. E. Tressler,et al.  Deformation history effects on the precipitation hardening behaviour of Ti4+-doped sapphire , 1979 .

[42]  M. Stuiver,et al.  Discussion: Reporting of 14 C Data , 1977 .

[43]  G. W. Groves,et al.  Structure of the 〈0110〉 dislocation in sapphire , 1976 .

[44]  E. Irving.  Structural evolution of the northernmost Andes, Colombia , 1975 .

[45]  D. J. Gooch,et al.  Non-basal slip in sapphire , 1973 .

[46]  A. Heuer,et al.  Slip Systems in Al2O3 , 1973 .

[47]  G. W. Groves,et al.  Prismatic Slip in Sapphire , 1972 .

[48]  R. J. Bratton.  Precipitation and Hardening Behavior of Czochralski Star Sapphire , 1971 .

[49]  M. V. Klassen‐Neklyudova,et al.  Plastic Deformation of Corundum Single Crystals , 1970 .

[50]  A. H. Heuer,et al.  Deformation twinning in corundum , 1966 .

[51]  W. J. Alford,et al.  Dislocation Structures in Single‐Crystal Al2O3 , 1964 .

[52]  R. Scheuplein,et al.  Surface Structure in Corundum: I, Etching of Dislocations , 1960 .

[53]  W. Eppler.  Notes on Asterism in Corundum, Rose Quartz and Almandine Garnet and Chatoyancy in Beryl , 1958 .

[54]  A. J. Breebaart.  Structure & Inclusions of Synthetic Star-Stones , 1957 .

[55]  A. K. Wells,et al.  The Petrology of the Igneous Rocks , 1950, Nature.