Human amygdala development in the absence of species-expected caregiving.

In altricial species, like the human, caregiver presence is necessary for typical emotional development. Children who have been raised in institutional care early in life experience caregiver deprivation and are at significantly elevated risk for emotional difficulties. The current manuscript examines the non-human and human literatures on amygdala development following caregiver deprivation and presents an argument that in the absence of the species-expected caregiver presence, human amygdala development exhibits rapid development and perhaps premature engagement that results in some of the emotional phenotypes observed following early institutional care.

[1]  Todd A. Hare,et al.  Frontostriatal Maturation Predicts Cognitive Control Failure to Appetitive Cues in Adolescents , 2011, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[2]  T. Hare,et al.  Elevated amygdala response to faces following early deprivation. , 2011, Developmental science.

[3]  S. Moriceau,et al.  Rodent model of infant attachment learning and stress. , 2010, Developmental psychobiology.

[4]  Mary L. Schneider,et al.  Sensory processing in internationally adopted, post-institutionalized children. , 2010, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[5]  Jocelyne Bachevalier,et al.  Maturation of the hippocampal formation and amygdala in Macaca mulatta: A volumetric magnetic resonance imaging study , 2010, Hippocampus.

[6]  S. Moriceau,et al.  Developing a Neurobehavioral Animal Model of Infant Attachment to an Abusive Caregiver , 2010, Biological Psychiatry.

[7]  M. Gunnar,et al.  Early Experience and the Development of Stress Reactivity and Regulation in Children a R T I C L E I N F O Keywords: Animal Models Caregiving Child Development Deprivation Emotion Foster Care Institutional Care Regulation Stress , 2022 .

[8]  M. Behen,et al.  Altered water diffusivity in cortical association tracts in children with early deprivation identified with Tract-Based Spatial Statistics (TBSS). , 2010, Cerebral cortex.

[9]  J. Kim,et al.  New Findings on Extinction of Conditioned Fear Early in Development: Theoretical and Clinical Implications , 2010, Biological Psychiatry.

[10]  S. Rauch,et al.  Neurobiological Basis of Failure to Recall Extinction Memory in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder , 2009, Biological Psychiatry.

[11]  J. Mezey,et al.  Brain-derived neurotrophic factor as a model system for examining gene by environment interactions across development , 2009, Neuroscience.

[12]  S. Rees,et al.  Anxiolytic effects of rapid amygdala kindling, and the influence of early life experience in rats , 2009, Behavioural Brain Research.

[13]  Margaret A. Sheridan,et al.  A Review of Adversity, The Amygdala and the Hippocampus: A Consideration of Developmental Timing , 2009, Front. Hum. Neurosci..

[14]  G. Barr,et al.  Transitions in infant learning are modulated by dopamine within the amygdala , 2009, Nature Neuroscience.

[15]  J. Kim,et al.  Fear Extinction across Development: The Involvement of the Medial Prefrontal Cortex as Assessed by Temporary Inactivation and Immunohistochemistry , 2009, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[16]  Jens C. Pruessner,et al.  The brain and the stress axis: The neural correlates of cortisol regulation in response to stress , 2009, NeuroImage.

[17]  Talma Hendler,et al.  Human vulnerability to stress depends on amygdala's predisposition and hippocampal plasticity , 2009, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[18]  M. Rutter,et al.  Amygdala, hippocampal and corpus callosum size following severe early institutional deprivation: the English and Romanian Adoptees study pilot. , 2009, Journal of child psychology and psychiatry, and allied disciplines.

[19]  Joseph E LeDoux,et al.  Avoiding Negative Outcomes: Tracking the Mechanisms of Avoidance Learning in Humans During Fear Conditioning , 2009, Front. Behav. Neurosci..

[20]  D. McIntosh,et al.  Affective Responsiveness, Betrayal, and Childhood Abuse , 2009, Journal of trauma & dissociation : the official journal of the International Society for the Study of Dissociation.

[21]  N. Fox,et al.  Institutional rearing and psychiatric disorders in Romanian preschool children. , 2009, The American journal of psychiatry.

[22]  Charles A Nelson,et al.  Relational memory during infancy: evidence from eye tracking. , 2009, Developmental science.

[23]  Bruce S. McEwen,et al.  Stress, memory and the amygdala , 2009, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[24]  K. Taber,et al.  Association of trauma exposure with psychiatric morbidity in military veterans who have served since September 11, 2001. , 2009, Journal of psychiatric research.

[25]  E. Stein,et al.  Early-life stress induces long-term morphologic changes in primate brain. , 2009, Archives of general psychiatry.

[26]  C. Sisk,et al.  Back to the future: The organizational–activational hypothesis adapted to puberty and adolescence , 2009, Hormones and Behavior.

[27]  Guido Gerig,et al.  Longitudinal study of amygdala volume and joint attention in 2- to 4-year-old children with autism. , 2009, Archives of general psychiatry.

[28]  T. Kikusui,et al.  Behavioural and Neurochemical Consequences of Early Weaning in Rodents , 2009, Journal of neuroendocrinology.

[29]  Bumseok Jeong,et al.  Preliminary Evidence for White Matter Tract Abnormalities in Young Adults Exposed to Parental Verbal Abuse , 2009, Biological Psychiatry.

[30]  M. Kemeny,et al.  Psychobiological responses to social threat: Evolution of a psychological model in psychoneuroimmunology , 2009, Brain, Behavior, and Immunity.

[31]  Winfried Schlee,et al.  Top-Down Modulation of the Auditory Steady-State Response in a Task-Switch Paradigm , 2008, Front. Hum. Neurosci..

[32]  Rebecca C. Knickmeyer,et al.  A Structural MRI Study of Human Brain Development from Birth to 2 Years , 2008, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[33]  M. Ichikawa,et al.  Early weaning induces anxiety and precocious myelination in the anterior part of the basolateral amygdala of male Balb/c mice , 2008, Neuroscience.

[34]  B. McEwen Understanding the potency of stressful early life experiences on brain and body function. , 2008, Metabolism: clinical and experimental.

[35]  Elizabeth Redcay,et al.  Deviant Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging Patterns of Brain Activity to Speech in 2–3-Year-Old Children with Autism Spectrum Disorder , 2008, Biological Psychiatry.

[36]  Ellen Leibenluft,et al.  A Developmental Examination of Amygdala Response to Facial Expressions , 2008, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[37]  S. Pollak,et al.  Neuroendocrine Dysregulation following Early Social Deprivation in Children , 2022 .

[38]  R. Sullivan,et al.  Neonatal odor-shock conditioning alters the neural network involved in odor fear learning at adulthood. , 2008, Learning & memory.

[39]  Christopher S. Monk,et al.  The development of emotion-related neural circuitry in health and psychopathology , 2008, Development and Psychopathology.

[40]  M. Ernst,et al.  Altered amygdala and hippocampus function in adolescents with hypercortisolemia: A functional magnetic resonance imaging study of Cushing syndrome , 2008, Development and Psychopathology.

[41]  M. Bakermans-Kranenburg,et al.  Physical growth delays and stress dysregulation in stunted and non-stunted Ukrainian institution-reared children. , 2008, Infant behavior & development.

[42]  D. Hedges,et al.  Hippocampal and amygdala volumes in children and adults with childhood maltreatment‐related posttraumatic stress disorder: A meta‐analysis , 2008, Hippocampus.

[43]  Martin H. Teicher,et al.  Preliminary evidence for sensitive periods in the effect of childhood sexual abuse on regional brain development. , 2008, The Journal of neuropsychiatry and clinical neurosciences.

[44]  B. Czéh,et al.  Chronic stress-induced cellular changes in the medial prefrontal cortex and their potential clinical implications: Does hemisphere location matter? , 2008, Behavioural Brain Research.

[45]  E. Leibenluft,et al.  Reduced amygdala response to fearful expressions in children and adolescents with callous-unemotional traits and disruptive behavior disorders. , 2008, The American journal of psychiatry.

[46]  K. Matthews,et al.  Potential neural embedding of parental social standing. , 2008, Social cognitive and affective neuroscience.

[47]  Philip Shaw,et al.  Trajectories of anatomic brain development as a phenotype. , 2008, Novartis Foundation symposium.

[48]  G. Glover,et al.  Biological Substrates of Emotional Reactivity and Regulation in Adolescence During an Emotional Go-Nogo Task , 2008, Biological Psychiatry.

[49]  Damien A. Fair,et al.  Defining functional areas in individual human brains using resting functional connectivity MRI , 2008, NeuroImage.

[50]  S. Rauch,et al.  Evidence for Acquired Pregenual Anterior Cingulate Gray Matter Loss from a Twin Study of Combat-Related Posttraumatic Stress Disorder , 2008, Biological Psychiatry.

[51]  S. Petersen,et al.  The maturing architecture of the brain's default network , 2008, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[52]  M. Gunnar,et al.  Salivary cortisol levels in children of low-income women with high depressive symptomatology , 2008, Development and Psychopathology.

[53]  J. Long,et al.  Early deprivation and home basal cortisol levels: A study of internationally adopted children , 2008, Development and Psychopathology.

[54]  A. Masten,et al.  Research, part of a Special Feature on Managing Surprises in Complex Systems Disaster Preparation and Recovery: Lessons from Research on Resilience in Human Development , 2008 .

[55]  Gail S. Goodman,et al.  Neurodevelopmental Correlates of True and False Recognition , 2008, Cerebral cortex.

[56]  Kamryn T. Eddy,et al.  Amygdala-frontal connectivity during emotion regulation. , 2007, Social cognitive and affective neuroscience.

[57]  S. Lupien,et al.  The effects of stress and stress hormones on human cognition: Implications for the field of brain and cognition , 2007, Brain and Cognition.

[58]  Parker J. Holman,et al.  Enduring Effects of Infant Memories: Infant Odor-Shock Conditioning Attenuates Amygdala Activity and Adult Fear Conditioning , 2007, Biological Psychiatry.

[59]  Terence J O'Brien,et al.  Early Postnatal Stress Confers Enduring Vulnerability to Limbic Epileptogenesis , 2007, Epilepsia.

[60]  Pilyoung Kim,et al.  Childhood Poverty and Health , 2007, Psychological science.

[61]  A. Etkin,et al.  Functional neuroimaging of anxiety: a meta-analysis of emotional processing in PTSD, social anxiety disorder, and specific phobia. , 2007, The American journal of psychiatry.

[62]  Joseph J. Paton,et al.  Expectation Modulates Neural Responses to Pleasant and Aversive Stimuli in Primate Amygdala , 2007, Neuron.

[63]  John D E Gabrieli,et al.  Development of the declarative memory system in the human brain , 2007, Nature Neuroscience.

[64]  S. Petersen,et al.  Development of distinct control networks through segregation and integration , 2007, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[65]  K. Braun,et al.  Exposure to neonatal separation stress alters exploratory behavior and corticotropin releasing factor expression in neurons in the amygdala and hippocampus , 2007, Developmental neurobiology.

[66]  Peter J. Gianaros,et al.  Prospective reports of chronic life stress predict decreased grey matter volume in the hippocampus , 2007, NeuroImage.

[67]  P. Levitt,et al.  Amygdala Gene Expression Correlates of Social Behavior in Monkeys Experiencing Maternal Separation , 2007, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[68]  William D S Killgore,et al.  Unconscious processing of facial affect in children and adolescents , 2007, Social neuroscience.

[69]  Claus C. Hilgetag,et al.  Sequence of information processing for emotions based on the anatomic dialogue between prefrontal cortex and amygdala , 2007, NeuroImage.

[70]  Jennifer S. Beer,et al.  Prefrontal involvement in the regulation of emotion: convergence of rat and human studies , 2006, Current Opinion in Neurobiology.

[71]  J. F. Lopez,et al.  Brain corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH) circuits in the developing rat: Effect of maternal deprivation , 2006, Brain Research.

[72]  Megan R. Gunnar,et al.  Child maltreatment and the developing HPA axis , 2006, Hormones and Behavior.

[73]  Kiralee M. Hayashi,et al.  Dynamic mapping of normal human hippocampal development , 2006, Hippocampus.

[74]  S. Moriceau,et al.  Maternal presence serves as a switch between learning fear and attraction in infancy , 2006, Nature Neuroscience.

[75]  M. Delgado,et al.  Extending animal models of fear conditioning to humans , 2006, Biological Psychology.

[76]  S. Rauch,et al.  Amygdala, Medial Prefrontal Cortex, and Hippocampal Function in PTSD , 2006, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[77]  J. Bremner The Relationship Between Cognitive and Brain Changes in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder , 2006, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[78]  M. Meaney,et al.  Glucocorticoid “Programming” and PTSD Risk , 2006, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[79]  T. Baram,et al.  Cellular and molecular mechanisms of hippocampal activation by acute stress are age-dependent , 2006, Molecular Psychiatry.

[80]  S. Moriceau,et al.  Dual Circuitry for Odor–Shock Conditioning during Infancy: Corticosterone Switches between Fear and Attraction via Amygdala , 2006, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[81]  Alicia Izquierdo,et al.  Brief Uncontrollable Stress Causes Dendritic Retraction in Infralimbic Cortex and Resistance to Fear Extinction in Mice , 2006, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[82]  E. Gordon,et al.  Early Life Stress and Morphometry of the Adult Anterior Cingulate Cortex and Caudate Nuclei , 2006, Biological Psychiatry.

[83]  Hongjoo J. Lee,et al.  Early life stress impairs fear conditioning in adult male and female rats , 2006, Brain Research.

[84]  C. Wellman,et al.  Chronic stress impairs recall of extinction of conditioned fear , 2006, Neurobiology of Learning and Memory.

[85]  Margot J. Taylor,et al.  Children recruit distinct neural systems for implicit emotional face processing , 2006, Neuroreport.

[86]  M. Maroun,et al.  Enhancement of conditioned fear extinction by infusion of the GABAA agonist muscimol into the rat prefrontal cortex and amygdala , 2006, The European journal of neuroscience.

[87]  C. Nemeroff,et al.  Long-Term Consequences of Neonatal Rearing on Central Corticotropin-Releasing Factor Systems in Adult Male Rat Offspring , 2005, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[88]  S. Moriceau,et al.  Neurobiology of infant attachment. , 2005, Developmental psychobiology.

[89]  G. Lynch,et al.  Mechanisms of Late-Onset Cognitive Decline after Early-Life Stress , 2005, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[90]  J. Armony,et al.  Amygdala response in patients with acute PTSD to masked and unmasked emotional facial expressions. , 2005, The American journal of psychiatry.

[91]  C. Sisk,et al.  Pubertal hormones organize the adolescent brain and behavior , 2005, Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology.

[92]  C. Zeanah,et al.  Attachment in institutionalized and community children in Romania. , 2005, Child development.

[93]  A. Grace,et al.  Chronic Cold Stress Alters Prefrontal Cortical Modulation of Amygdala Neuronal Activity in Rats , 2005, Biological Psychiatry.

[94]  Viola Vaccarino,et al.  Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder: a meta-analysis. , 2005, Journal of affective disorders.

[95]  T. Shors,et al.  Distinctive stress effects on learning during puberty , 2005, Hormones and Behavior.

[96]  Peter A. Bandettini,et al.  The role of the human amygdala in the production of conditioned fear responses , 2005, NeuroImage.

[97]  A. Meyer-Lindenberg,et al.  5-HTTLPR polymorphism impacts human cingulate-amygdala interactions: a genetic susceptibility mechanism for depression , 2005, Nature Neuroscience.

[98]  Peter Erhard,et al.  A common neural basis for receptive and expressive communication of pleasant facial affect , 2005, NeuroImage.

[99]  Marinus H. van IJzendoorn,et al.  Behavior problems and mental health referrals of international adoptees: a meta-analysis. , 2005, JAMA.

[100]  Sonia J. Lupien,et al.  Stress hormones and human memory function across the lifespan , 2005, Psychoneuroendocrinology.

[101]  J. Bremner,et al.  MR-based in vivo hippocampal volumetrics: 2. Findings in neuropsychiatric disorders , 2005, Molecular Psychiatry.

[102]  S. Chattarji,et al.  Recovery after chronic stress fails to reverse amygdaloid neuronal hypertrophy and enhanced anxiety-like behavior , 2004, Neuroscience.

[103]  C. Temple,et al.  Developmental amnesia: a new pattern of dissociation with intact episodic memory , 2004, Neuropsychologia.

[104]  Jeffrey S. Maxwell,et al.  Human Amygdala Responsivity to Masked Fearful Eye Whites , 2004, Science.

[105]  Jay N Giedd,et al.  Effects of Hormones and Sex Chromosomes on Stress‐Influenced Regions of the Developing Pediatric Brain , 2004, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[106]  M. Gunnar,et al.  Developmental changes in baseline cortisol activity in early childhood: relations with napping and effortful control. , 2004, Developmental psychobiology.

[107]  O. Pascalis,et al.  Development of flexible visual recognition memory in human infants. , 2004, Developmental science.

[108]  P. Kuhl Early language acquisition: cracking the speech code , 2004, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[109]  Martin H. Teicher,et al.  Delayed Effects of Early Stress on Hippocampal Development , 2004, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[110]  C. Sisk,et al.  The neural basis of puberty and adolescence , 2004, Nature Neuroscience.

[111]  D. Amaral,et al.  The Development of Social Behavior Following Neonatal Amygdala Lesions in Rhesus Monkeys , 2004, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[112]  E. Knudsen Sensitive Periods in the Development of the Brain and Behavior , 2004, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience.

[113]  Suzanne E. Welcome,et al.  Longitudinal Mapping of Cortical Thickness and Brain Growth in Normal Children , 2022 .

[114]  Joseph E LeDoux,et al.  Extinction Learning in Humans Role of the Amygdala and vmPFC , 2004, Neuron.

[115]  S. Moriceau,et al.  Corticosterone controls the developmental emergence of fear and amygdala function to predator odors in infant rat pups , 2004, International Journal of Developmental Neuroscience.

[116]  C. Lange,et al.  Enlarged amygdala volume and reduced hippocampal volume in young women with major depression , 2004, Psychological Medicine.

[117]  D. Amaral,et al.  The Amygdala Is Enlarged in Children But Not Adolescents with Autism; the Hippocampus Is Enlarged at All Ages , 2004, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[118]  R. Grunau,et al.  Neonatal procedural pain and preterm infant cortisol response to novelty at 8 months. , 2004, Pediatrics.

[119]  S. Pollak,et al.  Emotion understanding in postinstitutionalized Eastern European children , 2004, Development and Psychopathology.

[120]  T. Baram,et al.  Region-specific onset of handling-induced changes in corticotropin-releasing factor and glucocorticoid receptor expression. , 2004, Endocrinology.

[121]  T. Johnstone,et al.  Human amygdala responses during presentation of happy and neutral faces: correlations with state anxiety , 2004, Biological Psychiatry.

[122]  S. Moriceau,et al.  Corticosterone influences on Mammalian neonatal sensitive-period learning. , 2004, Behavioral neuroscience.

[123]  Darin D Dougherty,et al.  Regional cerebral blood flow in the amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex during traumatic imagery in male and female Vietnam veterans with PTSD. , 2004, Archives of general psychiatry.

[124]  Domenico Montanaro,et al.  A Case of Amnesia at an Early Age , 2003, Cortex.

[125]  Christopher S. Monk,et al.  A neuroimaging method for the study of threat in adolescents. , 2003, Developmental psychobiology.

[126]  Ellen Leibenluft,et al.  Adolescent immaturity in attention-related brain engagement to emotional facial expressions , 2003, NeuroImage.

[127]  H. Kraemer,et al.  Untreated depression and hippocampal volume loss. , 2003, The American journal of psychiatry.

[128]  M. Maroun,et al.  Exposure to Acute Stress Blocks the Induction of Long-Term Potentiation of the Amygdala–Prefrontal Cortex Pathway In Vivo , 2003, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[129]  T. Baram,et al.  Stress and the developing hippocampus , 2003, Molecular Neurobiology.

[130]  J. Bohl,et al.  Ontogeny of the Human Amygdala , 2003, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences.

[131]  Eric Vermetten,et al.  Magnetic resonance imaging of hippocampal and amygdala volume in women with childhood abuse and borderline personality disorder , 2003, Psychiatry Research: Neuroimaging.

[132]  Martin H. Teicher,et al.  The neurobiological consequences of early stress and childhood maltreatment , 2003, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews.

[133]  M. Rutter,et al.  Child–parent attachment following early institutional deprivation , 2003, Development and Psychopathology.

[134]  F. Benes,et al.  Amygdalo‐cortical sprouting continues into early adulthood: Implications for the development of normal and abnormal function during adolescence , 2002, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[135]  G. Quirk,et al.  Neurons in medial prefrontal cortex signal memory for fear extinction , 2002, Nature.

[136]  M. Shenton,et al.  Smaller hippocampal volume predicts pathologic vulnerability to psychological trauma , 2002, Nature Neuroscience.

[137]  N. Kalin,et al.  Maternal stress beginning in infancy may sensitize children to later stress exposure: effects on cortisol and behavior , 2002, Biological Psychiatry.

[138]  M. Meaney,et al.  Environmental Enrichment Reverses the Effects of Maternal Separation on Stress Reactivity , 2002, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[139]  S. Chattarji,et al.  Chronic Stress Induces Contrasting Patterns of Dendritic Remodeling in Hippocampal and Amygdaloid Neurons , 2002, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[140]  C. Zeanah,et al.  Attachment disturbances in young children. II: Indiscriminate behavior and institutional care. , 2002, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

[141]  E. Murray,et al.  The amygdala and reward , 2002, Nature Reviews Neuroscience.

[142]  G. Dawson,et al.  Stress hormone levels of children of depressed mothers , 2002, Development and Psychopathology.

[143]  John M Hoffman,et al.  Ecstasy and Agony: Activation of the Human Amygdala in Positive and Negative Emotion , 2002, Psychological science.

[144]  M. Gunnar,et al.  Social regulation of the cortisol levels in early human development , 2002, Psychoneuroendocrinology.

[145]  Stephan Eliez,et al.  Attenuation of frontal asymmetry in pediatric posttraumatic stress disorder , 2001, Biological Psychiatry.

[146]  M. Rutter,et al.  Can Inattention/Overactivity Be an Institutional Deprivation Syndrome? , 2001, Journal of abnormal child psychology.

[147]  C. Wellman,et al.  Dendritic reorganization in pyramidal neurons in medial prefrontal cortex after chronic corticosterone administration. , 2001, Journal of neurobiology.

[148]  B. J. Casey,et al.  Amygdala response to fearful faces in anxious and depressed children. , 2001, Archives of general psychiatry.

[149]  T. Baram,et al.  Neurobiology of the stress response early in life: evolution of a concept and the role of corticotropin releasing hormone , 2001, Molecular Psychiatry.

[150]  D. Amaral,et al.  Increased social fear and decreased fear of objects in monkeys with neonatal amygdala lesions , 2001, Neuroscience.

[151]  M. Gunnar,et al.  Low cortisol and a flattening of expected daytime rhythm: Potential indices of risk in human development , 2001, Development and Psychopathology.

[152]  D. Cicchetti,et al.  Diverse patterns of neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children , 2001, Development and Psychopathology.

[153]  M. Gunnar,et al.  Salivary cortisol levels in children adopted from Romanian orphanages , 2001, Development and Psychopathology.

[154]  P. Plotsky,et al.  Early adverse experience as a developmental risk factor for later psychopathology: Evidence from rodent and primate models , 2001, Development and Psychopathology.

[155]  K. Frustaci,et al.  A pilot longitudinal study of hippocampal volumes in pediatric maltreatment-related posttraumatic stress disorder , 2001, Biological Psychiatry.

[156]  M. Packard,et al.  Amygdala Is Critical for Stress-Induced Modulation of Hippocampal Long-Term Potentiation and Learning , 2001, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[157]  T. Baram,et al.  Long-term, progressive hippocampal cell loss and dysfunction induced by early-life administration of corticotropin-releasing hormone reproduce the effects of early-life stress , 2001, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[158]  R. Poulton,et al.  Determinants of early- vs late-onset dental fear in a longitudinal-epidemiological study. , 2001, Behaviour research and therapy.

[159]  K. Braun,et al.  Maternal separation and social isolation modulate the postnatal development of synaptic composition in the infralimbic cortex of Octodon degus , 2001, Neuroscience.

[160]  Kathleen M. Thomas,et al.  Amygdala response to facial expressions in children and adults , 2001, Biological Psychiatry.

[161]  William D S Killgore,et al.  Sex-specific developmental changes in amygdala responses to affective faces , 2001, Neuroreport.

[162]  M. Zwaan,et al.  Magnetic resonance imaging volumes of the hippocampus and the amygdala in women with borderline personality disorder and early traumatization. , 2000, Archives of general psychiatry.

[163]  M. Gunnar,et al.  International adoption of institutionally reared children: Research and policy , 2000, Development and Psychopathology.

[164]  T. Baram,et al.  Neuronal activity and stress differentially regulate hippocampal and hypothalamic corticotropin-releasing hormone expression in the immature rat , 2000, Neuroscience.

[165]  B. McEwen,et al.  Child’s stress hormone levels correlate with mother’s socioeconomic status and depressive state , 2000, Biological Psychiatry.

[166]  B. J. Casey,et al.  Structural and functional brain development and its relation to cognitive development , 2000, Biological Psychology.

[167]  C. Brewin,et al.  Meta-analysis of risk factors for posttraumatic stress disorder in trauma-exposed adults. , 2000, Journal of consulting and clinical psychology.

[168]  G. Quirk,et al.  The Role of Ventromedial Prefrontal Cortex in the Recovery of Extinguished Fear , 2000, The Journal of Neuroscience.

[169]  R. Adamec,et al.  Rodent anxiety and kindling of the central amygdala and nucleus basalis , 2000, Physiology & Behavior.

[170]  Lisa M Shin,et al.  Exaggerated amygdala response to masked facial stimuli in posttraumatic stress disorder: a functional MRI study , 2000, Biological Psychiatry.

[171]  Shakti Sharma,et al.  The Effects of Early Rearing Environment on the Development of GABAA and Central Benzodiazepine Receptor Levels and Novelty-Induced Fearfulness in the Rat , 2000, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[172]  H. Merckelbach,et al.  Fears, Worries, and Scary Dreams in 4- to 12-Year-Old Children:Their Content, Developmental Pattern, and Origins , 2000, Journal of clinical child psychology.

[173]  M. Metzger,et al.  Maternal separation followed by early social deprivation affects the development of monoaminergic fiber systems in the medial prefrontal cortex of Octodon degus , 1999, Neuroscience.

[174]  Joseph E LeDoux,et al.  Repeated restraint stress facilitates fear conditioning independently of causing hippocampal CA3 dendritic atrophy. , 1999, Behavioral neuroscience.

[175]  R. Adolphs,et al.  Normal recognition of emotional similarity between facial expressions following bilateral amygdala damage , 1999, Neuropsychologia.

[176]  R. Kessler,et al.  Previous exposure to trauma and PTSD effects of subsequent trauma: results from the Detroit Area Survey of Trauma. , 1999, The American journal of psychiatry.

[177]  Israel Liberzon,et al.  Brain activation in PTSD in response to trauma-related stimuli , 1999, Biological Psychiatry.

[178]  P F Renshaw,et al.  Functional magnetic resonance imaging of facial affect recognition in children and adolescents. , 1999, Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry.

[179]  Kenneth S. Yoon,et al.  Stress: metaplastic effects in the hippocampus , 1998, Trends in Neurosciences.

[180]  T. Baram,et al.  Neuropeptide-mediated excitability: a key triggering mechanism for seizure generation in the developing brain , 1998, Trends in Neurosciences.

[181]  B. Bonaz,et al.  Effect of a chronic stress on CRF neuronal activity and expression of its type 1 receptor in the rat brain. , 1998, American journal of physiology. Regulatory, integrative and comparative physiology.

[182]  D. Vázquez STRESS AND THE DEVELOPING LIMBIC–HYPOTHALAMIC–PITUITARY–ADRENAL AXIS , 1998, Psychoneuroendocrinology.

[183]  T. Baram,et al.  Corticotropin Releasing Factor mRNA Expression in the Hypothalamic Paraventricular Nucleus and the Central Nucleus of the Amygdala is Modulated by Repeated Acute Stress in the Immature Rat , 1998, Journal of neuroendocrinology.

[184]  K. Chisholm,et al.  A three year follow-up of attachment and indiscriminate friendliness in children adopted from Romanian orphanages. , 1998, Child development.

[185]  Joseph E LeDoux,et al.  Human Amygdala Activation during Conditioned Fear Acquisition and Extinction: a Mixed-Trial fMRI Study , 1998, Neuron.

[186]  Shakti Sharma,et al.  Maternal care during infancy regulates the development of neural systems mediating the expression of fearfulness in the rat. , 1998, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[187]  Bruce S. McEwen,et al.  INDUCTION OF CORTICOTROPIN-RELEASING HORMONE GENE EXPRESSION BY GLUCOCORTICOIDS: IMPLICATION FOR UNDERSTANDING THE STATES OF FEAR AND ANXIETY AND ALLOSTATIC LOAD , 1998, Psychoneuroendocrinology.

[188]  J. Schulkin,et al.  From normal fear to pathological anxiety. , 1998, Psychological review.

[189]  M. Packard,et al.  Amygdala Modulation of Multiple Memory Systems: Hippocampus and Caudate-Putamen , 1998, Neurobiology of Learning and Memory.

[190]  R. F. Westbrook,et al.  Benzodiazepine-induced amnesia in rats: reinstatement of conditioned performance by noxious stimulation on test. , 1998, Behavioral neuroscience.

[191]  M. Oitzl,et al.  Facilitation of Feedback Inhibition Through Blockade of Glucocorticoid Receptors in the Hippocampus , 1997, Neurochemical Research.

[192]  P. Huttenlocher,et al.  Regional differences in synaptogenesis in human cerebral cortex , 1997, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[193]  Shakti Sharma,et al.  Maternal care, hippocampal glucocorticoid receptors, and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal responses to stress. , 1997, Science.

[194]  M. Mishkin,et al.  Differential effects of early hippocampal pathology on episodic and semantic memory. , 1997, Science.

[195]  J. Bourgeois,et al.  Synaptogenesis, heterochrony and epigenesis in the mammalian neocortex , 1997, Acta paediatrica (Oslo, Norway : 1992). Supplement.

[196]  J. Herman,et al.  Neurocircuitry of stress: central control of the hypothalamo–pituitary–adrenocortical axis , 1997, Trends in Neurosciences.

[197]  R. Bronen,et al.  Magnetic resonance imaging-based measurement of hippocampal volume in posttraumatic stress disorder related to childhood physical and sexual abuse—a preliminary report , 1997, Biological Psychiatry.

[198]  R. Verwer,et al.  Postnatal development of amygdaloid projections to the prefrontal cortex in the rat studied with retrograde and anterograde tracers , 1996, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[199]  M. Mayes,et al.  The effect on memory of chronic prednisone treatment in patients with systemic disease , 1996, Neurology.

[200]  S. Rauch,et al.  Response and Habituation of the Human Amygdala during Visual Processing of Facial Expression , 1996, Neuron.

[201]  Y. Ikegaya,et al.  The Basomedial and Basolateral Amygdaloid Nuclei Contribute to the Induction of Long‐term Potentiation in the Dentate Gyrus In Vivo , 1996, The European journal of neuroscience.

[202]  H. Akil,et al.  Regulation of glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid receptor mRNAs in the hippocampus of the maternally deprived infant rat , 1996, Brain Research.

[203]  R. Sapolsky,et al.  Stress, Glucocorticoids, and Damage to the Nervous System: The Current State of Confusion. , 1996, Stress.

[204]  R. Parritz,et al.  Behavioral inhibition and stress reactivity: the moderating role of attachment security. , 1996, Child development.

[205]  T. Baram,et al.  Developmental profile of messenger RNA for the corticotropin-releasing hormone receptor in the rat limbic system. , 1996, Brain research. Developmental brain research.

[206]  Megan R. Gunnar,et al.  Salivary cortisol in maltreated children: Evidence of relations between neuroendocrine activity and social competence , 1995, Development and Psychopathology.

[207]  J. Rapoport,et al.  Quantitative MRI of the temporal lobe, amygdala, and hippocampus in normal human development: Ages 4–18 years , 1995, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[208]  C. Pavlides,et al.  Type I adrenal steroid receptors prolong hippocampal long-term potentiation. , 1994, Neuroreport.

[209]  R. Adolphs,et al.  Impaired recognition of emotion in facial expressions following bilateral damage to the human amygdala , 1994, Nature.

[210]  Younglim Lee,et al.  Effect of corticosterone on the enhancement of the acoustic startle reflex by corticotropin releasing factor (CRF) , 1994, Brain Research.

[211]  S. Feldman,et al.  Differential effect of amygdaloid lesions on CRF-41, ACTH and corticosterone responses following neural stimuli , 1994, Brain Research.

[212]  J. Schulkin,et al.  Effects of corticosterone on CRH mRNA and content in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis; comparison with the effects in the central nucleus of the amygdala and the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus , 1994, Brain Research.

[213]  M. Hofer Early relationships as regulators of infant physiology and behavior , 1994, Acta paediatrica (Oslo, Norway : 1992). Supplement.

[214]  J. Newcomer,et al.  Glucocorticoid-induced impairment in declarative memory performance in adult humans , 1994, The Journal of neuroscience : the official journal of the Society for Neuroscience.

[215]  J. W. Rudy,et al.  Ontogeny of Contextual Fear Conditioning in Rats: Implications for Consolidation, Infantile Amnesia, and Hippocampal System Function , 1994 .

[216]  J. Schulkin,et al.  Corticosterone effects on corticotropin-releasing hormone mRNA in the central nucleus of the amygdala and the parvocellular region of the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus , 1994, Brain Research.

[217]  M. Hofer Hidden regulators in attachment, separation, and loss. , 1994, Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development.

[218]  Joseph E. LeDoux,et al.  Emotional memory systems in the brain , 1993, Behavioural Brain Research.

[219]  J. W. Rudy,et al.  Contextual conditioning and auditory cue conditioning dissociate during development. , 1993, Behavioral neuroscience.

[220]  Y Watanabe,et al.  Effects of glucocorticoids on hippocampal long‐term potentiation , 1993, Hippocampus.

[221]  T. Hökfelt,et al.  Fos and jun in rat central amygdaloid nucleus and paraventricular nucleus after stress. , 1992, Neuroreport.

[222]  O. Snead,et al.  Corticotropin‐releasing hormone–induced seizures in infant rats originate in the amygdala , 1992, Annals of neurology.

[223]  S. Moshé,et al.  Kindling in developing animals: expression of severe seizures and enhanced development of bilateral foci. , 1990, Brain research. Developmental brain research.

[224]  M. Bradley,et al.  Emotion, attention, and the startle reflex. , 1990, Psychological review.

[225]  M. Stanton,et al.  Inhibition of infant glucocorticoid stress response: specific role of maternal cues. , 1990, Developmental psychobiology.

[226]  N. Swerdlow,et al.  Potentiation of acoustic startle by corticotropin-releasing factor (CRF) and by fear are both reversed by alpha-helical CRF (9-41). , 1989, Neuropsychopharmacology : official publication of the American College of Neuropsychopharmacology.

[227]  M. Gunnar,et al.  Lack of stability in neonatal adrenocortical reactivity because of rapid habituation of the adrenocortical response. , 1989, Developmental psychobiology.

[228]  M. Stanton,et al.  Maternal modulation of infant glucocorticoid stress responses: Role of age and maternal deprivation , 1988, Psychobiology.

[229]  W. Greenough,et al.  Experience and brain development. , 1987, Child development.

[230]  Hans J. Markowitsch,et al.  The neuropathology of amnesia , 1985, Progress in Neurobiology.

[231]  H. Uylings,et al.  Postnatal volumetric development of the prefrontal cortex in the rat , 1985, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[232]  D. Wilson,et al.  A comparison of the postnatal development of post-activation potentiation in the neocortex and dentate gyrus of the rat. , 1984, Brain research.

[233]  M. Mishkin,et al.  The neuroanatomy of amnesia: amygdala-hippocampus versus temporal stem. , 1982, Science.

[234]  H. Davis,et al.  Predictability, control, and the pituitary-adrenal response in rats. , 1982, Journal of comparative and physiological psychology.

[235]  M. Hofer,et al.  Survival and Development of Maternally Deprived Rats: Role of Body Temperature , 1976, Psychosomatic Medicine.

[236]  G. Lynch,et al.  Synaptic rearrangement in the dentate gyrus: histochemical evidence of adjustments after lesions in immature and adult rats. , 1973, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[237]  V. Denenberg,et al.  Passage of 14C-4-Corticosterone from the Rat Mother to the Foetus and Neonate , 1970, Nature.

[238]  E. Sersen,et al.  CARDIAC CLASSICAL CONDITIONING AND REVERSAL IN THE MONGOLOID, ENCEPHALOPATHIC, AND NORMAL CHILD , 1970 .

[239]  D. Hubel,et al.  The period of susceptibility to the physiological effects of unilateral eye closure in kittens , 1970, The Journal of physiology.

[240]  M. Ainsworth,et al.  Object relations, dependency, and attachment: a theoretical review of the infant-mother relationship. , 1969, Child development.

[241]  T. Humphrey,et al.  The development of the human amygdala during early embryonic life , , 1968, The Journal of comparative neurology.

[242]  R. Cairns Attachment behavior of mammals. , 1966, Psychological review.

[243]  J. Bowlby Pathological Mourning and Childhood Mourning , 1963, Journal of the American Psychoanalytic Association.

[244]  E. Hess,et al.  Imprinting: effects of painful stimulation upon the following response. , 1963, Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology.

[245]  J. Mason Plasma 17-hydroxycorticosteroid levels during electrical stimulation of the amygdaloid complex in conscious monkeys. , 1958, The American journal of physiology.

[246]  B. Quinn,et al.  Prolonged institutional rearing is associated with atypically large amygdala volume and difficulties in emotion regulation. , 2010, Developmental science.

[247]  Michael E Dawson,et al.  The development of skin conductance fear conditioning in children from ages 3 to 8 years. , 2010, Developmental science.

[248]  N. Fox,et al.  Placement in foster care enhances quality of attachment among young institutionalized children. , 2010, Child development.

[249]  D. Cicchetti,et al.  The differential impacts of early physical and sexual abuse and internalizing problems on daytime cortisol rhythm in school-aged children. , 2010, Child development.

[250]  M. Yoshioka,et al.  Early postnatal stress and neural circuit underlying emotional regulation. , 2009, International review of neurobiology.

[251]  J. Bruce,et al.  Morning cortisol Levels in preschool-aged foster children: differential effects of maltreatment type. , 2009, Developmental psychobiology.

[252]  F. Seguin,et al.  Effects of stress throughout the lifespan on the brain, behaviour and cognition , 2009 .

[253]  G. Quirk,et al.  Neural Mechanisms of Extinction Learning and Retrieval , 2008, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[254]  G. Richter-Levin,et al.  Exposure to Stressors during Juvenility Disrupts Development-Related Alterations in the PSA-NCAM to NCAM Expression Ratio: Potential Relevance for Mood and Anxiety Disorders , 2008, Neuropsychopharmacology.

[255]  Eric Vermetten,et al.  Structural and functional plasticity of the human brain in posttraumatic stress disorder. , 2008, Progress in brain research.

[256]  M. Gunnar,et al.  The neurobiology of stress and development. , 2007, Annual review of psychology.

[257]  Nora S Newcombe,et al.  Binding, relational memory, and recall of naturalistic events: a developmental perspective. , 2006, Journal of experimental psychology. Learning, memory, and cognition.

[258]  Sarah Durston,et al.  A shift from diffuse to focal cortical activity with development. , 2006, Developmental science.

[259]  Michael E. Smith Bilateral hippocampal volume reduction in adults with post‐traumatic stress disorder: A meta‐analysis of structural MRI studies , 2005, Hippocampus.

[260]  R. Campbell,et al.  The impact of rape on women's sexual health risk behaviors. , 2004, Health psychology : official journal of the Division of Health Psychology, American Psychological Association.

[261]  H. Akil,et al.  Delayed effects of chronic variable stress during peripubertal‐juvenile period on hippocampal morphology and on cognitive and stress axis functions in rats , 2004, Hippocampus.

[262]  N. Alpert,et al.  See Blockindiscussions, Blockinstats, Blockinand Blockinauthor Blockinprofiles Blockinfor Blockinthis Blockinpublication Hippocampal Blockinfunction Blockinin Blockinposttraumatic Blockinstress Disorder Hippocampal Function in Posttraumatic Stress Disorder the Goal of the Current Research Was to Use , 2022 .

[263]  B. McEwen Early life influences on life-long patterns of behavior and health. , 2003, Mental retardation and developmental disabilities research reviews.

[264]  C. Nemeroff,et al.  The role of early adverse experience and adulthood stress in the prediction of neuroendocrine stress reactivity in women: A multiple regression analysis , 2002, Depression and anxiety.

[265]  H. Merckelbach,et al.  Children's nighttime fears: parent-child ratings of frequency, content, origins, coping behaviors and severity. , 2001, Behaviour Research and Therapy.

[266]  Michael Davis,et al.  The amygdala: vigilance and emotion , 2001, Molecular Psychiatry.

[267]  David G. Amaral,et al.  The role of the amygdala in primate social cognition. , 2000 .

[268]  R. Poulton,et al.  Water trauma and swimming experiences up to age 9 and fear of water at age 18: a longitudinal study. , 1999, Behaviour research and therapy.

[269]  B. McEwen Stress and hippocampal plasticity. , 1999, Annual review of neuroscience.

[270]  Karl J. Friston,et al.  A neuromodulatory role for the human amygdala in processing emotional facial expressions. , 1998, Brain : a journal of neurology.

[271]  M. Rutter,et al.  Retrospective reporting of childhood adversity: issues in assessing long-term recall. , 1997, Journal of personality disorders.

[272]  Michael Davis,et al.  The role of the amygdala in emotional learning. , 1994, International review of neurobiology.

[273]  R. Dantzer Stress and Disease: A Psychobiological Perspective , 1991, Annals of Behavioral Medicine.

[274]  O. Wolkowitz,et al.  Cognitive effects of corticosteroids. , 1990, The American journal of psychiatry.

[275]  J. W. Rudy,et al.  Changes in the categorization of appetitive and aversive events during postnatal development of the rat. , 1988, Developmental psychobiology.

[276]  R. Spitz Hospitalism; an inquiry into the genesis of psychiatric conditions in early childhood. , 1945, The Psychoanalytic study of the child.