Toward a broader view of social stereotyping.

Stereotyping effects are typically considered to be assimilative in nature: A member of a group stereotyped as having some attribute is judged to have more of that attribute than a member of some comparison group. This article highlights the fact that stereotyping effects can also occur in the direction of contrast--or even null effects-- depending on the nature and form of the outcome being assessed (from the researcher's perspective, the dependent variable of interest). Relying on theory and research from the shifting standards model (M. Biernat, M. Manis, & T. F. Nelson, 1991), this review highlights the different ways in which and the factors that determine how stereotypes influence judgment and behavior toward individual group members.

[1]  Jack McDevitt,et al.  A Resource Guide on Racial Profiling Data Collection Systems: Promising Practices and Lessons Learned , 2000 .

[2]  T. Pettigrew,et al.  Shaping the organizational context for Black American inclusion. , 1987 .

[3]  C. Crandall,et al.  All that you can be: stereotyping of self and others in a military context. , 1998, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[4]  Claude M. Steele,et al.  Race and the Schooling of Black Americans. , 1992 .

[5]  L. Jussim,et al.  The nature of stereotypes: a comparison and integration of three theories , 1987 .

[6]  C. Jencks,et al.  Racial bias in testing. , 1998 .

[7]  William H. Bommer,et al.  ON THE INTERCHANGEABILITY OF OBJECTIVE AND SUBJECTIVE MEASURES OF EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE: A META-ANALYSIS , 1995 .

[8]  C. Jencks,et al.  The Black-White Test Score Gap. , 1998 .

[9]  J. Dovidio,et al.  On the nature of prejudice: Automatic and controlled processes , 1997 .

[10]  D. Cohen.  Chronicle of Higher Education , 1998 .

[11]  J. Bernard,et al.  Racism and Sexism in Corporate Life: Changing Values in American Business. , 1982 .

[12]  M. Biernat,et al.  Comparison and expectancy processes in human judgment. , 1991, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[13]  J. Dovidio,et al.  Processes in Racial Discrimination: Differential Weighting of Conflicting Information , 2002 .

[14]  George Ritzer,et al.  Sociological Theories in Progress: New Formulations , 1989 .

[15]  Timothy D. Wilson,et al.  Mental contamination and mental correction: unwanted influences on judgments and evaluations. , 1994, Psychological bulletin.

[16]  Feedback to minorities: Evidence of a positive bias. , 1998 .

[17]  S. Dornbusch,et al.  Racism without Racists: Institutional Racism in Urban Schools , 1975 .

[18]  W. Swann,et al.  Hypothesis-Testing Processes in Social Interaction , 1978 .

[19]  S. Smith.  Grutter v Bollinger. , 2003, The virtual mentor : VM.

[20]  M. Biernat,et al.  Shifting Standards and the Evaluation of Competence: Complexity in Gender‐Based Judgment and Decision Making , 2001 .

[21]  John P. Fernandez,et al.  Racism and Sexism in Corporate Life Changing Values in American Business , 1981 .

[22]  S. Fiske.  Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. , 1998 .

[23]  Robert L. Heneman.  The relationship between supervisory ratings and results-oriented measures of performance: A meta-analysis. , 1986 .

[24]  Z. Kunda,et al.  Equal ratings but separate meanings: Stereotypes and the construal of traits. , 1997 .

[25]  S. Weitz,et al.  Attitude, voice, and behavior: a repressed affect model of interracial interaction. , 1972, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[26]  C. Stangor,et al.  Stereotypes and Stereotyping , 1996 .

[27]  Melvin Manis,et al.  Shifting standards and stereotype-based judgments. , 1994 .

[28]  M. Foschi.  Gender and Double Standards for Competence , 1992 .

[29]  T. Beehr,et al.  Employee Gender, Gender Similarity, and Supervisor-Subordinate Cross-Evaluations , 1983 .

[30]  M. Biernat,et al.  Decoding Subjective Evaluations: How Stereotypes Provide Shifting Standards , 1997 .

[31]  S. Fiske,et al.  The Handbook of Social Psychology , 1935 .

[32]  C. Stangor,et al.  Memory for expectancy-congruent and expectancy-incongruent information: A review of the social and social developmental literatures. , 1992 .

[33]  M. Biernat,et al.  She Swings, She Hits, She’s Great, She’s Benched: Implications of Gender-Based Shifting Standards for Judgment and Behavior , 2002 .

[34]  S. Carter.  Reflections of an affirmative action baby , 1991 .

[35]  K. Deaux,et al.  Explanations of successful performance on sex-linked tasks: What is skill for the male is luck for the female. , 1974 .

[36]  Dale T. Miller,et al.  Moral credentials and the expression of prejudice. , 2001, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[37]  K. Kraiger,et al.  Study of race effects in objective indices and subjective evaluations of performance: A meta-analysis of performance criteria. , 1986 .

[38]  D. Black,et al.  The manners and customs of the police , 1982 .

[39]  Prejudiced Communication: A Social Psychological Perspective , 2001 .

[40]  P. Thagard,et al.  FORMING IMPRESSIONS FROM STEREOTYPES, TRAITS, AND BEHAVIORS : A PARALLEL-CONSTRAINT-SATISFACTION THEORY , 1996 .

[41]  F. Schmidt.  The Problem of Group Differences in Ability Test Scores in Employment Selection , 1988 .

[42]  Saul Geiser,et al.  UC and the SAT: Predictive Validity and Differential Impact of the SAT I and SAT II at the University of California , 2001 .

[43]  F. Crosby,et al.  Affirmative action in perspective , 1989 .

[44]  C. Ridgeway,et al.  Gender, interaction, and inequality , 1992 .

[45]  M. Jackman,et al.  The Velvet Glove: Paternalism and Conflict in Gender, Class, and Race Relations , 1994 .

[46]  W. Norris,et al.  Employment Screening, Qualifications, and Gender Discrimination: A Case Study of the New York City Firefighters , 1989 .

[47]  G. Semin,et al.  Language use in intergroup contexts: the linguistic intergroup bias. , 1989, Journal of personality and social psychology.

[48]  Kevin R. Murphy,et al.  Understanding Performance Appraisal: Social, Organizational, and Goal-Based Perspectives , 1995 .

[49]  M. Biernat,et al.  Gender- and race-based standards of competence: lower minimum standards but higher ability standards for devalued groups , 1997 .

[50]  Susan Clayton,et al.  Affirmative action. Psychological data and the policy debates. , 2003, The American psychologist.

[51]  F. Crosby.  Affirmative Action is Dead; Long Live Affirmative Action , 2004 .