Open learning for an open world: Reflections on open and distance learning and teaching at the Open Polytechnic of New Zealand.

How can we better represent course content (for example, engineering components) that does not translate well into a paper-based medium? And how can we deliver this content without reliance on networks or online technologies? We propose that one solution to these questions is the use of augmented reality (AR). This chapter describes our journey of discovery as we investigate the possibilities of using AR technology to render 3D objects in paper-based course materials. This is not a technical document of the inner workings of AR technology but a description of the processes required to implement AR technology within Open Polytechnic courses. The project was conducted by an Open Polytechnic cross-discipline team, with participation from other work areas across the Open Polytechnic.

[1]  Anita Malinen Towards the Essence of Adult Experiential Learning: A Reading of the Theories of Knowles, Kolb, Mezirow, Revans and Schon. , 2000 .

[2]  S. Maathuis-Smith,et al.  Experiences of teaching faculty enrolled in the Open Polytechnic of New Zealand's Certificate in Designing and Facilitating E-learning. , 2010 .

[3]  Terry Neal Open and Flexible TVET in Commonwealth Pacific Countries. , 2011 .

[4]  Evelyn McLellan,et al.  Rethinking University Teaching, 2nd Edition: Diana Laurillard, RoutledgeFalmer, 2002, 288pp, price £19.99, ISBN 0-41525-679-8 , 2003, Int. J. Inf. Manag..

[5]  Terry Anderson,et al.  The Theory and Practice of Online Learning , 2009 .

[6]  Grace Lynch,et al.  Key elements of the tutorial support management model , 2010 .

[7]  Janet K. Poley Distance Education for American Universities and the World , 1998 .

[8]  Gillian Goozee,et al.  The Development of TAFE in Australia. 3rd Edition. , 2001 .

[9]  Nassir Navab,et al.  The Virtual Mirror: A New Interaction Paradigm for Augmented Reality Environments , 2009, IEEE Transactions on Medical Imaging.

[10]  Stephen Robertson,et al.  What's Wrong with Online Readings? Text, Hypertext, and the History Web , 2006 .

[11]  D. Schunk Learning Theories: An Educational Perspective , 1991 .

[12]  Stuart G. Walesh,et al.  The Dumbest Generation—How the Digital Age Stupefies Young Americans and Jeopardizes Our Future , 2008 .

[13]  George Siemens Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age , 2004 .

[14]  M. Abbott The development of vocational education and training in New Zealand , 2000 .

[15]  C. Bryson,et al.  The role of engagement in inspiring teaching and learning , 2007 .

[16]  M. Garner,et al.  Is the feedback in higher education assessment worth the paper it is written on? Teachers' reflections on their practices , 2010 .

[17]  Joseph R. Kraus Citation Patterns of Advanced Undergraduate Students in Biology, 2000-2002 , 2002 .

[18]  M. Keil,et al.  Addressing the Sustainability Challenge: Insights from Institutional Theory and Organizational Learning , 2011 .

[19]  L. M. Kaino Technology in Learning: Narrowing the Gender Gap? , 2008 .

[20]  Sarah Guri-Rosenblit,et al.  ‘Distance education’ and ‘e-learning’: Not the same thing , 2005 .

[21]  E. Deci,et al.  The "What" and "Why" of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior , 2000 .

[22]  Brett E. Shelton,et al.  Augmented Reality and Education: Current Projects and the Potential for Classroom Learning , 2002 .

[23]  Z. Kovacic,et al.  AUTOMATIC GRADER OF ADVANCED OFFICE SKILLS , 2010 .

[24]  Stephen Potter,et al.  Designing low carbon higher education systems: Environmental impacts of campus and distance learning systems , 2008 .

[25]  R. Garrison Theoretical Challenges for Distance Education in the 21st Century: A Shift from Structural to Transactional Issues , 2000 .

[26]  Gráinne Conole,et al.  Learning from the UKeU experience , 2005 .

[27]  Jeannie Brown Leonard,et al.  Examining Sense of Belonging Among First-Year Undergraduates From Different Racial/Ethnic Groups , 2007 .

[28]  Louise Archer,et al.  Challenging Cultures? Student Conceptions of 'Belonging' and 'Isolation' at a Post-1992 University , 2003 .

[29]  Clark N. Quinn,et al.  Making It Matter to the Learner: e-Motional e-Learning , 2006 .

[30]  Charles F. Bryan,et al.  ANNUAL REPORT 2007 , 2008, Handelingen van de Koninklijke Commissie voor Toponymie en Dialectologie.

[31]  Maria Hartl,et al.  Technical and vocational education and training ( TVET ) and skills development for poverty reduction – do rural women benefit ? , 2009 .

[32]  R. Scholz,et al.  Higher education as a change agent for sustainability in different cultures and contexts , 2008 .

[33]  N. E. Weaver,et al.  Students as clients: A client-centred approach to distance learning. , 2007 .

[34]  Ormond Simpson,et al.  Improving Student Retention through Evidence Based Proactive Systems at the Open University (UK) , 2006 .

[35]  Bryna Coonin At a Distance , 2011 .

[36]  Diana C. Reep Technical Writing: Principles, Strategies, and Readings , 1991 .

[37]  J. Mezirow Transformative Dimensions of Adult Learning , 1991 .

[38]  Michael W. Allen Designing Successful e-Learning: Forget What You Know About Instructional Design and Do Something Interesting , 2007 .

[39]  Jorge J. Wellmann The National Survey of Student Engagement , 2010 .

[40]  B. Bridges,et al.  African American and Hispanic Student Engagement at Minority Serving and Predominantly White Institutions , 2007 .

[41]  Amanda Cossham,et al.  Obtaining high retention and completion rates in a New Zealand ODL environment: A case study of strategies employed by Information and Library Studies Faculty at the Open Polytechnic , 2011 .

[42]  Greville Rumble Just How Relevant is E-education to Global Educational Needs? , 2001 .

[43]  Mary Herring Planning for Interactive Distance Education: A Handbook , 1998 .

[44]  Amber Dailey-Hebert,et al.  Frequency and Time Investment of Instructors' Participation in Threaded Discussions in the Online Classroom , 2007 .

[45]  Mike Moore,et al.  Distance Education: A Systems View , 1995 .

[46]  Elwood F. Holton,et al.  The Adult Learner : The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource Development , 1998 .

[47]  Alison Ashby Monitoring student retention in the Open University: definition, measurement, interpretation and action , 2004 .

[48]  U. Wingate Doing away with ‘study skills’ , 2006 .

[49]  Charles M. Reigeluth,et al.  Instructional-Design Theories and Models Volume III , 2009 .

[50]  Liu Wanyi,et al.  Computer Assisted Language Learning , 2011, 2011 International Conference on E-Business and E-Government (ICEE).

[51]  Alan Woodley,et al.  Conceptualizing student dropout in part‐time distance education: pathologizing the normal? , 2004 .

[52]  Nick Kapnison,et al.  ANNUAL REPORT FOR 2010 , 2010 .

[53]  David J. Scott A closer look at completion in higher education in New Zealand , 2009 .

[54]  Peter Knight,et al.  Self‐theories: some implications for teaching and learning in higher education , 2004 .

[55]  Thomas G. Hill Excel grader and access grader , 2004, SGCS.

[56]  F. Milligan,et al.  Beyond the rhetoric of problem-based learning: emancipatory limits and links with andragogy. , 1999, Nurse education today.

[57]  Alexander J. Romiszowski,et al.  Designing Instructional Systems , 1980 .

[58]  Alan Davies,et al.  Handbook of Applied Linguistics , 2003 .

[59]  Shel Holtz,et al.  How to Do Everything with Podcasting , 2006 .

[60]  Siegbert Schmid,et al.  Bridging courses: Good learning environments for engaging students? , 2006 .

[61]  S. D. Groote Citation patterns of online and print journals in the digital age. , 2008 .

[62]  C. Colón,et al.  Acceso y equidad en la educación a distancia: investigación, desarrollo y criterios de calidad Access and Equity in Distance Education: Research and Development, and Quality Concerns , 2012 .

[63]  J. Last Our common future. , 1987, Canadian journal of public health = Revue canadienne de sante publique.

[64]  Ron Oliver When Teaching Meets Learning : Design Principles and Strategies for Web-based Learning Environments that Support Knowledge Construction , 2000 .

[65]  M. Groves,et al.  Facilitating experiential learning of study skills in sports students , 2010 .

[66]  Yair Levy,et al.  Comparing dropouts and persistence in e-learning courses , 2007, Comput. Educ..

[67]  D. Gash E-moderating: the key to teaching and learning online , 2012 .

[68]  Linda Smith,et al.  Decolonizing Methodologies: Research and Indigenous Peoples , 2000 .

[69]  Jack Mezirow,et al.  Fostering Critical Reflection in Adulthood: A Guide to Transformative and Emancipatory Learning , 1990 .

[70]  Bryony Ramsden,et al.  Library Impact Data Project: Looking for the Link between Library Usage and Student Attainment , 2011, Coll. Res. Libr..

[71]  Gilly Salmon,et al.  E-moderating: the key to teaching and learning online , 2003 .

[72]  A. Chickering,et al.  Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education , 1987, CORE.

[73]  D. Keegan Foundations of distance education , 1986 .

[74]  Kerri-Lee Krause,et al.  Students’ engagement in first‐year university , 2008 .

[75]  Börje Holmberg,et al.  Distance Education: A Survey and Bibliography , 1979 .

[76]  A. Cattell The Adult Learner – The Definitive Classic in Adult Education and Human Resource Development , 2005 .

[77]  Mary Ainley,et al.  Connecting with Learning: Motivation, Affect and Cognition in Interest Processes , 2006 .

[78]  Glenda Crosling,et al.  Introduction: Student success and retention , 2008 .

[79]  Angelo Nicolaides,et al.  The implementation of environmental management towards sustainable universities and education for sustainable development as an ethical imperative , 2006 .

[80]  R. Kegan What “form” transforms? A constructive-developmental approach to transformative learning , 2009 .

[81]  Diana Laurillard,et al.  The pedagogical challenges to collaborative technologies , 2009, Int. J. Comput. Support. Collab. Learn..

[82]  Barbara Sporn,et al.  Institutional Adaptation: Demands for Management Reform and University Administration , 1999 .

[83]  Terry Anderson,et al.  E-Learning in the 21st Century: A Community of Inquiry Framework for Research and Practice , 2016 .

[84]  Lisa D. Martin,et al.  A Learning-to-learn Program in a First-year Chemistry Class , 2001 .

[85]  Seymour Papert,et al.  Information Technology and Education: Computer Criticism vs. Technocentric Thinking , 1987 .

[86]  D. Laurillard Pedagogical forms of mobile learning: framing research questions , 2007 .

[87]  J. S. Green,et al.  Using mobile technologies for open and distance learning community development. , 2007 .

[88]  P. Schuetz A Theory-Driven Model of Community College Student Engagement , 2008 .

[89]  Jill Lawrence,et al.  Preliminary essay plans: assisting students to engage academic literacy in a first year communication course , 2006 .

[90]  Ormond Simpson,et al.  Motivating learners in open and distance learning: do we need a new theory of learner support? , 2008 .

[91]  Tim O. Peterson,et al.  It's Called Andragogy , 2006 .

[92]  G. Brundtland,et al.  Our common future , 1987 .

[93]  George D. Kuh,et al.  Maximizing What Students Get Out of College: Testing a Learning Productivity Model , 2003 .

[94]  Thomas G. Hill MEAGER: Microsoft Excel automated grader , 2003 .

[95]  John M. Braxton Student Success in College: Creating Conditions That Matter , 2005 .

[96]  John C. Hayek,et al.  What Matters to Student Success: A Review of the Literature , 2006 .

[97]  Andrew Carpenter,et al.  The Courage to Teach: Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teacher's Life , 2007 .

[98]  Clay Shirky Here Comes Everybody: The Power of Organizing Without Organizations , 2008 .

[99]  G. H. Brundtland World Commission on environment and development , 1985 .

[100]  Shun Han Rebekah Wong,et al.  Uncovering Meaningful Correlation between Student Academic Performance and Library Material Usage , 2011, Coll. Res. Libr..

[101]  J. Hattie,et al.  The Power of Feedback , 2007 .

[102]  J. Barlow The Shallows: What the Internet is Doing to Our Brains , 2010 .

[103]  P. Bailey,et al.  Assessing the impact of a study skills programme on the academic development of nursing diploma students at Northumbria University, UK. , 2007, Health information and libraries journal.

[104]  Elaine Chapman,et al.  Alternative Approaches to Assessing Student Engagement Rates , 2003 .

[105]  Carol E. Kasworm Adult Meaning Making In The Undergraduate Classroom , 2003 .

[106]  Patricia L. Rogers,et al.  Designing Instruction for Technology-Enhanced Learning , 2002 .

[107]  P. Kobeleva Marking as a writing process. , 2010 .

[108]  Börje Holmberg DISTANCE EDUCATION IN ESSENCE AN OVERVIEW OF THEORY AND PRACTICE IN THE EARLY TWENTY-FIRST CENTURY , 2002 .

[109]  Rupert J. Baumgartner,et al.  Organizational culture and leadership: Preconditions for the development of a sustainable corporation , 2009 .

[110]  Marisa Salanova,et al.  Does a positive gain spiral of resources, efficacy beliefs and engagement exist? , 2007, Comput. Hum. Behav..

[111]  F. Townsend New horizons , 1943 .

[112]  R. Flett,et al.  Influential Factors Moderating Academic Enjoyment/motivation and Psychological Well-Being for Maori University Students at Massey University , 2005 .

[113]  J. Robson,et al.  LEARNERS’ EMOTIONAL AND PSYCHIC RESPONSES TO ENCOUNTERS WITH LEARNING SUPPORT IN FURTHER EDUCATION AND TRAINING , 2008 .

[114]  Tim Green,et al.  The Essentials of Instructional Design: Connecting Fundamental Principles with Process and Practice , 2005 .

[115]  Lorelle J. Burton An Interactive Approach to Writing Essays and Research Reports in Psychology , 2002 .

[116]  J. C. Smart,et al.  Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research , 2001, Higher Education: Handbook of Theory and Research.

[117]  Rosemary Luckin,et al.  “Making it real”: exploring the potential of augmented reality for teaching primary school science , 2006, Virtual Reality.

[118]  Richard Fisher Should we be Allowing Technology to Remove "Distance" from "Distance Education"? , 2008 .

[119]  Ivan Poupyrev,et al.  The MagicBook - Moving Seamlessly between Reality and Virtuality , 2001, IEEE Computer Graphics and Applications.

[120]  Lisa R. Lattuca,et al.  More than meets the eye: Curricular and Programmatic Effects on Student Learning , 2006 .

[121]  David Annand,et al.  Re-organizing Universities for the Information Age , 2007 .

[122]  Monika Foster,et al.  Engaging students in enhanced academic transitions: a case of online study skills resource SPICE (Student Pre-arrival Induction for Continuing Education) , 2011 .

[123]  S S Cooper,et al.  Principles of Adult Learning , 1983, Occupational health nursing.

[124]  Jill H. Larkin,et al.  Learning From Electronic Texts: Effects of Interactive Overviews for Information Access , 1995 .

[125]  Jared Keengwe,et al.  E-learning Pedagogy: Tools to Enhance Effective E-learning Environments , 2008 .

[126]  S. Murgatroyd,et al.  Issues in the Management of Distance Education , 1989 .

[127]  Greg McVerry,et al.  New Literacies of Online Reading Comprehension , 2012 .

[128]  Reba Leiding Using Citation Checking of Undergraduate Honors Thesis Bibliographies to Evaluate Library Collections , 2005 .

[129]  Felix Mödritscher,et al.  e-Learning Theories in Practice: A Comparison of three Methods , 2006 .

[130]  Ormond Simpson,et al.  Predicting student success in open and distance learning , 2006 .

[131]  Alan Woodley,et al.  Student Progress in Distance Education: Kember's model re-visited , 2001 .

[132]  M. Knowles The Modern practice of adult education : andragogy versus pedagogy / , 1970 .

[133]  M. Olson,et al.  Enhancing Adult Motivation to Learn: A Comprehensive Guide for Teaching All Adults , 2010 .

[134]  H. Coates Attracting, engaging and retaining : new conversations about learning , 2008 .

[135]  Holly B.A. Heller-Ross Assessing Outcomes with Nursing Research Assignments and Citation Analysis of StudentBibliographies , 2003 .

[136]  Carol A. Twigg Course Redesign Improves Learning and Reduces Cost. Policy Alert. , 2005 .

[137]  Otto. Peters Learning and Teaching in Distance Education: Analyses and Interpretations from an International Perspective , 2001 .

[138]  Jason Cole Using moodle , 2005 .

[139]  Paul D. Umbach,et al.  Faculty do Matter: The Role of College Faculty in Student Learning and Engagement , 2005 .

[140]  Lateka J. Grays,et al.  Building a Better M.I.C.E. Trap: Using Virtual Focus Groups to Assess Subject Guides for Distance Education Students , 2008 .

[141]  P. Palmer,et al.  The Courage to Teach: Exploring the Inner Landscape of a Teacher’s Life , 2000 .

[142]  R. Ivanič,et al.  What am I supposed to make of this? : the messages conveyed to students by tutors' written comments. , 2000 .

[143]  Anne Ross,et al.  Making distance learning E.R.O.T.I.C.: applying interpretation principles to distance learning , 2003 .

[144]  Kathleen P. King The Handbook of the Evolving Research of Transformative Learning: Based on the Learning Activities Survey (10th Anniversary Edition). Adult Education Special Topics--Theory, Research and Practice in LifeLong Learning. , 2009 .

[145]  Jing Lei,et al.  Quantity versus quality: A new approach to examine the relationship between technology use and student outcomes , 2010, Br. J. Educ. Technol..

[146]  Jenepher Lennox Terrion,et al.  A taxonomy of the characteristics of student peer mentors in higher education: findings from a literature review , 2007 .

[147]  Richard E. Clark,et al.  Why Minimal Guidance During Instruction Does Not Work: An Analysis of the Failure of Constructivist, Discovery, Problem-Based, Experiential, and Inquiry-Based Teaching , 2006 .

[148]  Lynda Carey,et al.  Experiences of problem-based learning: issues for community specialist practitioner students. , 2002, Nurse education today.

[149]  Judith Keene From abstract to relevant: encouraging access to journals , 2009 .

[150]  Norman Gaither,et al.  Production and operations management: A problem-solving and decision-making approach , 1980 .

[151]  Student engagement in human biology practical sessions , 2007 .

[152]  Paul A. Kirschner,et al.  New Learning Design in Distance Education: The impact on student perception and motivation , 2007 .

[153]  Mantz Yorke,et al.  Retention, persistence and success in on‐campus higher education, and their enhancement in open and distance learning , 2004 .

[154]  G. Goozee The development of TAFE in Australia , 2001 .

[155]  Tanya Elias,et al.  Universal instructional design principles for Moodle , 2010 .

[156]  T. Higgins,et al.  Ask the posts of our house: using cultural spaces to encourage quality learning in higher education , 2011 .

[157]  Börje Holmberg,et al.  Theory and practice of distance education , 1989 .

[158]  Contextualising student engagement: Orientation and beyond in teacher education , 2006 .

[159]  Gwen Giddens From Technology to Learning. , 2003 .

[160]  Dennis Fox,et al.  Personal theories of teaching , 1983 .

[161]  Michael F. Beaudoin The instructor's changing role in distance education , 1990 .

[162]  Belinda Tynan,et al.  The adventures of Miranda in the brave new world: learning in a Web 2.0 millennium , 2007 .

[163]  R. Garrett The Real Story behind the Failure of U.K. eUniversity. , 2004 .

[164]  G. Mersham Reflections on e-learning from a communication perspective. , 2009 .

[165]  Vikki Smith,et al.  The Researcher's Toolkit. The Complete Guide to Practitioner Research , 2001 .

[166]  Robin Roy,et al.  Sustainable services, electronic education and the rebound effect , 2002 .

[167]  M. van Harmelen Personal Learning Environments , 2006 .

[168]  Marc Waldman,et al.  Automated measurement and analysis of effectiveness of teaching selected Excel topics in an introductory IS class , 2008 .

[169]  H. Klein,et al.  MOTIVATION TO LEARN AND COURSE OUTCOMES: THE IMPACT OF DELIVERY MODE, LEARNING GOAL ORIENTATION, AND PERCEIVED BARRIERS AND ENABLERS , 2006 .

[170]  D. Randy Garrison,et al.  Avoiding the Industrialization of Research Universities: Big and Little Distance Education. , 1999 .

[171]  P. Venturini The Contribution of the Theory of Relation to Knowledge to Understanding Students’ Engagement in Learning Physics , 2007 .

[172]  B. Bloom Taxonomy of educational objectives , 1956 .

[173]  Sarah Clark,et al.  Research Performance in Undergraduates Receiving Face to Face versus Online Library Instruction: A Citation Analysis , 2010 .

[174]  A. Lyytinen,et al.  Finnish polytechnics as providers of knowledge-intensive services , 2008 .

[175]  Peter Söderbaum,et al.  Making actors, paradigms and ideologies visible in governance for sustainability , 2009 .

[176]  Ormond Simpson,et al.  Student–student mentoring for retention and engagement in distance education , 2010 .

[177]  Bradford S. Bell,et al.  A theory-based approach for designing distributed learning systems. , 2007 .

[178]  Susan Sisola Learning as Transformation: Critical Perspectives on a Theory in Progress , 2004 .

[179]  Mike Sharples,et al.  Big Issues in Mobile Learning , 2005 .

[180]  James D. Russell,et al.  The 2000/2001 astd distance learning yearbook , 2001 .

[181]  M. Moore The Theory of Transactional Distance , 2012, Handbook of Distance Education.

[182]  P. Natanasabapathy Towards self-sustainability in education. , 2007 .

[183]  Stacey Knight-Davis,et al.  Analysis of Citations in Undergraduate Papers , 2008 .

[184]  Stephen R. Porter INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURES AND STUDENT ENGAGEMENT , 2006 .

[185]  Ormond Simpson,et al.  Supporting students in Open and Distance Learning , 2002 .

[186]  George D. Kuh,et al.  Adding Value: Learning Communities and Student Engagement , 2004 .

[187]  Avner Caspi,et al.  The Influence of Personality on Social Participation in Learning Environments , 2006 .

[188]  I. Helsloot,et al.  Risk Management in Higher Education and Research in the Netherlands , 2006 .

[189]  Madely du Preez Google and the Myth of Universal Knowledge: A View from Europe , 2009 .

[190]  B. Crisp Is it worth the effort? How feedback influences students’ subsequent submission of assessable work , 2007 .