STEM Education and Outcomes in Vietnam: Views from the Social Gap and Gender Issues

United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals 4 Quality Education has highlighted major challenges for all nations to ensure inclusive and equitable quality access to education, facilities for children, and young adults. The SDG4 is even more important for developing nations as receiving proper education or vocational training, especially in science and technology, means a foundational step in improving other aspects of their citizens’ lives. However, the extant scientific literature about STEM education still lacks focus on developing countries, even more so in the rural area. Using a dataset of 4967 observations of junior high school students from a rural area in a transition economy, the article employs the Bayesian approach to identify the interaction between gender, socioeconomic status, and students’ STEM academic achievements. The results report gender has little association with STEM academic achievements; however, female students (αa_Sex[2] = 2.83) appear to have achieved better results than their male counterparts (αa_Sex[1] = 2.68). Families with better economic status, parents with a high level of education (βb(EduMot) = 0.07), or non-manual jobs (αa_SexPJ[4] = 3.25) are found to be correlated with better study results. On the contrary, students with zero (βb(OnlyChi) = -0.14) or more than two siblings (βb(NumberofChi) = -0.01) are correlated with lower study results compared to those with only one sibling. These results imply the importance of providing women with opportunities for better education. Policymakers should also consider maintaining family size so the parents can provide their resources to each child equally.

[1]  N. Napier,et al.  What we see, why we worry, why we hope: Vietnam going forward , 2022 .

[2]  Aisdl.  bayesvl: Visually Learning the Graphical Structure of Bayesian Networks and Performing MCMC with 'Stan' , 2020 .

[3]  Q. Vuong.  Breaking barriers in publishing demands a proactive attitude , 2019, Nature Human Behaviour.

[4]  Q. Vuong,et al.  The Relationship between Birth Order, Sex, Home Scholarly Culture and Youths’ Reading Practices in Promoting Lifelong Learning for Sustainable Development in Vietnam , 2019, Sustainability.

[5]  Josip Burušić,et al.  Technology-based activities at home and STEM school achievement: the moderating effects of student gender and parental education , 2019, Research in Science & Technological Education.

[6]  Quan-Hoang Vuong,et al.  The harsh world of publishing in emerging regions and implications for editors and publishers: The case of Vietnam , 2019, Learn. Publ..

[7]  T. Breda,et al.  Girls’ comparative advantage in reading can largely explain the gender gap in math-related fields , 2019, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[8]  M. A. Mostajo-Radji,et al.  Effective participatory science education in a diverse Latin American population , 2019, Palgrave Communications.

[9]  Sherri Cianca.  STEM Education , 2019, Teaching Elementary STEM Education.

[10]  C. Rolleston,et al.  Beyond the basics: Access and equity in the expansion of post-compulsory schooling in Vietnam , 2019, International Journal of Educational Development.

[11]  Q. Vuong.  Computational Entrepreneurship: From Economic Complexities to Interdisciplinary Research , 2019, Problems and Perspectives in Management.

[12]  Erin A. Cech,et al.  The changing career trajectories of new parents in STEM , 2019, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[13]  D. Skorton.  Branches from the same tree: The case for integration in higher education , 2019, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[14]  H. Marsh,et al.  Countries, parental occupation, and girls' interest in science , 2019, The Lancet.

[15]  H. Nguyen,et al.  Cultural Evolution in Vietnam’s Early 20th Century: A Bayesian Networks Analysis of Franco-Chinese House Designs , 2019, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[16]  Sian L. Beilock,et al.  Reducing socioeconomic disparities in the STEM pipeline through student emotion regulation , 2019, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[17]  Q. Vuong,et al.  Cultural additivity: behavioural insights from the interaction of Confucianism, Buddhism and Taoism in folktales , 2018, Palgrave Communications.

[18]  H. Metcalf.  Creating a stronger STEM community by addressing our bias , 2018, Nature Human Behaviour.

[19]  M. Ferguson,et al.  How gender determines the way we speak about professionals , 2018, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[20]  Ana Isabel Santos,et al.  Participatory Action Research in Higher Education Training , 2018 .

[21]  Fabian T. Pfeffer.  Growing Wealth Gaps in Education , 2018, Demography.

[22]  Natalia Nollenberger,et al.  Let the Girls Learn! It is Not Only About Math… It's About Gender Social Norms , 2018, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[23]  D. Davin.  The Early Childhood Education of the Only Child Generation in Urban China , 2017 .

[24]  F. Stafford,et al.  Gender gaps in math performance, perceived mathematical ability and college STEM education: the role of parental occupation , 2017, Education Economics.

[25]  G. Giannelli,et al.  The Intergenerational Transmission of Math Culture , 2017, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[26]  Kathleen M. Ziol-Guest,et al.  Parent Income–Based Gaps in Schooling , 2016 .

[27]  Katerina Bodovski,et al.  Rural /urban disparities in science achievement in post-socialist countries: The evolving influence of socioeconomic status , 2015 .

[28]  J. Eccles,et al.  Socioeconomic background, education, and labor force outcomes: evidence from a regional US sample , 2015 .

[29]  K. Kendler,et al.  Family environment and the malleability of cognitive ability: A Swedish national home-reared and adopted-away cosibling control study , 2015, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[30]  B. J. Casey,et al.  Family Income, Parental Education and Brain Structure in Children and Adolescents , 2015, Nature Neuroscience.

[31]  Andrei Cimpian,et al.  Expectations of brilliance underlie gender distributions across academic disciplines , 2015, Science.

[32]  M. Kim,et al.  College Major Choice in STEM: Revisiting Confidence and Demographic Factors , 2014 .

[33]  Jonathan Kelley,et al.  Scholarly Culture and Academic Performance in 42 Nations , 2014 .

[34]  G. G. Molina,et al.  Explaining Low Redistributive Impact in Bolivia , 2014 .

[35]  Ernesto Reuben,et al.  How stereotypes impair women’s careers in science , 2014, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[36]  Anthony P. Carnevale,et al.  Recovery: Job Growth and Education Requirements through 2020. , 2013 .

[37]  Michael Kremer,et al.  The Challenge of Education and Learning in the Developing World , 2013, Science.

[38]  Yoon-Tae Sung,et al.  Effect modification by parental education on the associations of birth order and gender with learning achievement in adolescents. , 2012, Child: care, health and development.

[39]  Jonathan Osborne,et al.  Science Aspirations, Capital, and Family Habitus , 2012 .

[40]  M. Graham,et al.  Science faculty’s subtle gender biases favor male students , 2012, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[41]  J. Harackiewicz,et al.  Helping Parents to Motivate Adolescents in Mathematics and Science , 2012, Psychological science.

[42]  Jørgen Sjaastad.  Sources of Inspiration: The role of significant persons in young people's choice of science in higher education , 2012 .

[43]  Imac Maria Zambrana,et al.  Impact of Gender, Maternal Education, and Birth Order on the Development of Language Comprehension: A Longitudinal Study from 18 to 36 Months of Age , 2012, Journal of developmental and behavioral pediatrics : JDBP.

[44]  Linda G. Kimmel,et al.  Pathways to a STEMM Profession , 2012 .

[45]  S. A. Leung,et al.  Vocational aspirations of Chinese high school students and their parents' expectations , 2011 .

[46]  S. Silbey,et al.  Professional Role Confidence and Gendered Persistence in Engineering , 2011 .

[47]  Hyun sik Kim.  Consequences of Parental Divorce for Child Development , 2011 .

[48]  Andrew N Meltzoff,et al.  Math–gender Stereotypes in Elementary School Children , 2011 .

[49]  S. Lubienski,et al.  The Development of Gender Achievement Gaps in Mathematics and Reading During Elementary and Middle School , 2011 .

[50]  Paula Veiga,et al.  Do Inequalities in Parents' Education Play an Important Role in PISA Students' Mathematics Achievement Test Score Disparities?. , 2010 .

[51]  Mary Frank Fox,et al.  Women and Men Faculty in Academic Science and Engineering: Social-Organizational Indicators and Implications , 2010 .

[52]  Brian A. Nosek,et al.  National differences in gender–science stereotypes predict national sex differences in science and math achievement , 2009, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[53]  Nancy Qian.  Quantity-Quality and the One Child Policy:The Only-Child Disadvantage in School Enrollment in Rural China , 2009 .

[54]  K. Lee.  Competition for Resources: A Reexamination of Sibship Composition Models of Parental Investment , 2009 .

[55]  Hyunjoon Park.  Public policy and the effect of sibship size on educational achievement: A comparative study of 20 countries , 2008 .

[56]  Andrew M. Penner,et al.  Gender differences in mathematics achievement: Exploring the early grades and the extremes , 2008 .

[57]  N. Fouad,et al.  Work and vocational psychology: theory, research, and applications. , 2007, Annual review of psychology.

[58]  D. Entwisle,et al.  Early Schooling: The Handicap of Being Poor and Male , 2007 .

[59]  Robert Perkins,et al.  The Nation's Report Card[TM]: America's High School Graduates. NCES 2007-467. , 2007 .

[60]  A. Kiefer,et al.  Implicit Stereotypes, Gender Identification, and Math-Related Outcomes , 2007, Psychological science.

[61]  M. Linn,et al.  Gender Similarities in Mathematics and Science , 2006, Science.

[62]  Victor Lavy,et al.  Multiple Experiments for the Causal Link between the Quantity and Quality of Children , 2006, Journal of Labor Economics.

[63]  M. Rosenzweig,et al.  Do Population Control Policies Induce More Human Capital Investment? Twins, Birthweight, and China's 'One Child' Policy , 2006, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[64]  E. Spelke.  Sex differences in intrinsic aptitude for mathematics and science?: a critical review. , 2005, The American psychologist.

[65]  Selcuk R. Sirin.  Socioeconomic Status and Academic Achievement: A Meta-Analytic Review of Research , 2005 .

[66]  A. Booth,et al.  Birth order matters: the effect of family size and birth order on educational attainment , 2005, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[67]  Mary Frank Fox,et al.  Book Review: Women in Science: Career Processes and Outcomes by Yu Xie and Kimberlee A. Shauman. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard University Press, 2003 , 2003 .

[68]  P. Davis-Kean,et al.  The influence of parent education and family income on child achievement: the indirect role of parental expectations and the home environment. , 2005, Journal of family psychology : JFP : journal of the Division of Family Psychology of the American Psychological Association.

[69]  Sandra E. Black,et al.  The more the merrier? The effect of family size and birth order on children's education , 2005 .

[70]  Jungmin Lee.  Sibling size and investment in children’s education: an asian instrument , 2004 .

[71]  Richard T. Lapan,et al.  Family Factors Associated With Sixth‐Grade Adolescents' Math and Science Career Interests , 2004 .

[72]  Shelley J. Correll,et al.  Constraints into Preferences: Gender, Status, and Emerging Career Aspirations , 2004 .

[73]  Brian Powell,et al.  Macro causes, micro effects: Linking public policy, family structure, and educational outcomes , 2004 .

[74]  E. Maurin,et al.  The Effects of Overcrowded Housing on Children's Performance at School , 2003 .

[75]  S. Wolter,et al.  Sibling Rivalry: A Look at Switzerland with PISA Data , 2002, SSRN Electronic Journal.

[76]  Brian Powell,et al.  Reconsidering the effects of sibling configuration: Recent advances and challenges , 2002 .

[77]  D B Downey,et al.  Number of siblings and intellectual development. The resource dilution explanation. , 2001, The American psychologist.

[78]  M. Iacovou.  "Family Composition and Children's Educational Outcomes" , 2001 .

[79]  Claudia Buchmann,et al.  Family structure parental perceptions and child labor in Kenya: what factors determine who is enrolled in school? , 2000 .

[80]  Guang Guo,et al.  Sibship Size and Intellectual Development: Is the Relationship Causal? , 1999, American Sociological Review.

[81]  D. Post,et al.  The Waning Effect of Sibship Composition on School Attainment in Hong Kong , 1998, Comparative Education Review.

[82]  D. Lam,et al.  Family size and children’s education in Vietnam , 1998, Demography.

[83]  R. Hauser,et al.  How does size of sibship matter? Family configuration and family effects on educational attainment. , 1997 .

[84]  Barbara Schneider,et al.  Opportunities For Learning: Course Sequences and Positional Advantages , 1997 .

[85]  T. Cook,et al.  The development of occupational aspirations and expectations among inner-city boys. , 1996, Child development.

[86]  K. Pavitt.  National policies for technical change: where are the increasing returns to economic research? , 1996, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[87]  Douglas B. Downey,et al.  WHEN BIGGER IS NOT BETTER: FAMILY SIZE, PARENTAL RESOURCES, AND CHILDREN'S EDUCATIONAL PERFORMANCE* , 1995 .

[88]  S. Desai.  When Are Children from Large Families Disadvantaged? Evidence from Cross-National Analyses , 1995 .

[89]  Nadya A. Fouad,et al.  Career Linking: An Intervention to Promote Math and Science Career Awareness. , 1995 .

[90]  Linda J. Sax,et al.  Mathematical self-concept: How college reinforces the gender gap , 1994 .

[91]  D. Kessler.  Birth Order, Family Size, and Achievement: Family Structure and Wage Determination , 1991, Journal of Labor Economics.

[92]  N. Astone,et al.  Family structure, parental practices and high school completion. , 1991 .

[93]  J. Knodel,et al.  Family size and children’s education in Thailand: Evidence from a national sample , 1991, Demography.

[94]  Carolyn Hopp,et al.  Gender Comparisons of Mathematics Attitudes and Affect: A Meta-Analysis , 1990 .

[95]  V. I. Cherian.  Birth Order and Academic Achievement of Children in Transkei , 1990, Psychological reports.

[96]  J. Behrman,et al.  Birth Order, Schooling, and Earnings , 1986, Journal of Labor Economics.

[97]  M. Gomes.  Family size and educational attainment in Kenya. , 1984 .

[98]  J. Blake.  Family size and the quality of children , 1981, Demography.

[99]  Nancy E. Betz,et al.  The Relationship of Career-Related Self-Efficacy Expectations to Perceived Career Options in College Women and Men. , 1981 .

[100]  G. Becker,et al.  Child Endowments, and the Quantity and Quality of Children , 1976 .

[101]  W. Noyes.  United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization , 1946, International Organization.

[102]  Jonathan Kelley,et al.  Scholarly culture: How books in adolescence enhance adult literacy, numeracy and technology skills in 31 societies. , 2019, Social science research.

[103]  Viet-Phuong La,et al.  Descriptor : An open database of productivity in Vietnam ' s social sciences and humanities for public use , 2018 .

[104]  Q. Vuong.  The (ir)rational consideration of the cost of science in transition economies , 2017, Nature Human Behaviour.

[105]  Fanuel Muindi,et al.  Chapter 3 – The Global Perspective , 2017 .

[106]  Yvonne Feierabend,et al.  Family Size And Achievement , 2016 .

[107]  Liz Malm,et al.  On the Interaction between the Quantity and Quality of Children , 2012 .

[108]  Sean F. Reardon.  The widening academic achievement gap between the rich and the poor , 2011 .

[109]  J. Schuknecht,et al.  The Nation's Report Card[TM]: America's High School Graduates. Results of the 2009 NAEP High School Transcript Study. NCES 2011-462. , 2011 .

[110]  A. Ryan,et al.  Sex differences in math performance: The role of children's approach to schoolwork. , 2006, Developmental psychology.

[111]  J. Eccles,et al.  Motivational beliefs, values, and goals. , 2002, Annual review of psychology.

[112]  Brian A. Nosek,et al.  Math Male , Me Female , Therefore Math Me , 2002 .

[113]  C. Lloyd,et al.  Does Sibsize Matter? Implications of Family Size for Children's Educational Opportunities and Work Responsibilities in Ghana , 1992 .

[114]  G. Knamiller.  The Struggle for Relevance in Science Education in Developing Countries , 1984 .

[115]  R. Zajonc,et al.  Birth Order and Intellectual Development , 1975 .