The Management of Natural Coastal Carbon Sinks

This report focuses on the management of natural coastal carbon sinks. There is a lack of recognition and focus on coastal marine ecosystems to complement activities already well advanced on land to address the best practice management of carbon sinks. This report provides essential evidence needed to motivate discussions and initiatives on how coastal ecosystems should be incorporated into international and national emission reduction strategies, national greenhouse gas inventories and carbon revenue schemes.

[1]  J. Day,et al.  Structure and Productivity of Microtidal Mediterranean Coastal Marshes , 2002 .

[2]  P. Tans,et al.  Atmospheric O2/N2 changes, 1993–2002: Implications for the partitioning of fossil fuel CO2 sequestration , 2005 .

[3]  Alejandro H. Buschmann,et al.  GLOBAL ECOLOGY OF THE GIANT KELP MACROCYSTIS : FROM ECOTYPES TO ECOSYSTEMS , 2007 .

[4]  P. Dayton Experimental Evaluation of Ecological Dominance in a Rocky Intertidal Algal Community , 1975 .

[5]  Chen Ji-yu,et al.  Coatal salt marshes and mangrove swamps in China , 1995 .

[6]  Edoardo Greppi FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) , 1981 .

[7]  R. E. Turner,et al.  Wetland loss in the Northern Gulf of Mexico: Multiple working hypotheses , 1997 .

[8]  M. Weinstein,et al.  Concepts and Controversies in Tidal Marsh Ecology , 2000, Springer Netherlands.

[9]  R. Eugene Turner,et al.  Effects of eutrophication on salt marsh root and rhizome biomass accumulation , 2008 .

[10]  Andrew J. Watson,et al.  Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide , 2005 .

[11]  D. Schiel,et al.  The structure of subtidal algal stands in temperature waters , 1986 .

[12]  M. Spalding,et al.  New estimates of global and regional coral reef areas , 1997, Coral Reefs.

[13]  Jack J. Middelburg,et al.  Major role of marine vegetation on the oceanic carbon cycle , 2004 .

[14]  C. Page,et al.  Ocean acidification due to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide , 2005 .

[15]  D. Schell,et al.  Dependence of consumers on macroalgal (Laminaria solidungula) carbon in an arctic kelp community: δ13C evidence , 1987 .

[16]  L. Airoldi,et al.  Loss, status and trends for coastal marine habitats of Europe , 2007 .

[17]  Carlos M. Duarte,et al.  Seagrass Biomass And Production: A Reassessment , 1999 .

[18]  J. Rodgers The Distribution of Marine Carbonate Sediments: A Review , 1957 .

[19]  Robert Costanza,et al.  The value of ecosystem services , 1998 .

[20]  Simon M. Mudd,et al.  Impact of dynamic feedbacks between sedimentation, sea-level rise, and biomass production on near-surface marsh stratigraphy and carbon accumulation , 2009 .

[21]  S. V. Smith,et al.  Measurement of community metabolism and significance in the coral reef CO2 source-sink debate. , 1999, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America.

[22]  M. Mateo,et al.  The Detritic Compartment in a Posidonia oceanica Meadow: Litter Features, Decomposition Rates, and Mineral Stocks , 1992 .

[23]  Robert S. Steneck,et al.  Kelp forest ecosystems: biodiversity, stability, resilience and future , 2002, Environmental Conservation.

[24]  T. Dittmar,et al.  Molecular evidence for lignin degradation in sulfate-reducing mangrove sediments (Amazônia, Brazil) , 2001 .

[25]  C. Turner,et al.  Fish Bulletin 146. Man-Made Reef Ecology , 1969 .

[26]  Nico Koedam,et al.  Functionality of restored mangroves: A review , 2008 .

[27]  Toby Tyrrell,et al.  Phytoplankton Calcification in a High-CO2 World , 2008, Science.

[28]  F. Imamura,et al.  The reduction effects of mangrove forest on a tsunami based on field surveys at Pakarang Cape, Thailand and numerical analysis , 2009 .

[29]  M. Scheffer,et al.  Young Mangrove Stands Produce a Large and High Quality Litter Input to Aquatic Systems , 2005, Wetlands Ecology and Management.

[30]  D. Alongi Present state and future of the world's mangrove forests , 2002, Environmental Conservation.

[31]  S. V. Smith,et al.  Processes of Carbon Dioxide Flux in the Fanning Island Lagoon , 1974 .

[32]  J. Kleypas,et al.  Modeled estimates of global reef habitat and carbonate production since the Last Glacial Maximum , 1997 .

[33]  S. V. Smith,et al.  Calcium Carbonate Production, Coral Reef Growth, and Sea Level Change , 1976, Science.

[34]  M. Foster,et al.  The Santa Barbara oil spill Part 2: Initial effects on intertidal and kelp bed organisms , 1971 .

[35]  S. Doney,et al.  Carbon and Climate System Coupling on Timescales from the Precambrian , 2007 .

[36]  C. Folke,et al.  Ecological goods and services of coral reef ecosystems , 1999 .

[37]  D. Kinsey Metabolism, calcification and carbon production. I. System level studies , 1985 .

[38]  A. Szmant Nutrient enrichment on coral reefs: Is it a major cause of coral reef decline? , 2002 .

[39]  Donald R. Cahoon,et al.  Pattern and process of land loss in the Mississippi Delta: A Spatial and temporal analysis of wetland habitat change , 2000 .

[40]  C. Harrold The ecological role of echinoderms in kelp forests , 1987 .

[41]  K. Mann,et al.  Ecology of Coastal Waters: With Implications For Management , 1982 .

[42]  K. Bjorndal,et al.  Historical Overfishing and the Recent Collapse of Coastal Ecosystems , 2001, Science.

[43]  C. Perry,et al.  Intertidal substrate modification as a result of mangrove planting: impacts of introduced mangrove species on sediment microfacies characteristics. , 2009 .

[44]  H. W. Frey California's living marine resources and their utilization , 1971 .

[45]  F. Daiber,et al.  Aboveground and belowground primary production dynamics of two Delaware Bay tidal marshes , 1984 .

[46]  Eric S. Menges,et al.  Patterns of Change in the Carbon Balance of Organic Soil-Wetlands of the Temperate Zone , 1986 .

[47]  C. Field Rehabilitation of Mangrove Ecosystems: An Overview , 1999 .

[48]  P. Neushul Energy from marine biomass: the historical record , 1987 .

[49]  Laura López-Hoffman,et al.  Environmental drivers in mangrove establishment and early development: A review , 2008 .

[50]  Frederick T. Short,et al.  Site-selection model for optimal transplantation of eelgrass Zostera marina in the northeastern US , 2002 .

[51]  M. L. Reaka-Kudla,et al.  Coral reefs: sources or sinks of atmospheric CO2? , 1992, Coral Reefs.

[52]  Robert J. Orth,et al.  Seagrasses: biology, ecology and conservation , 2006 .

[53]  J. L. Gallagher Halophytic crops for cultivation at seawater salinity , 1985 .

[54]  Frederick T. Short,et al.  Global seagrass distribution and diversity: A bioregional model , 2007 .

[55]  Maurizio Mencuccini,et al.  Below-ground root yield and distribution in natural and replanted mangrove forests at Gazi bay, Kenya , 2008 .

[56]  V. Ittekkot,et al.  Relevance of mangroves for the production and deposition of organic matter along tropical continental margins , 2001, Naturwissenschaften.

[57]  C. Parmesan Ecological and Evolutionary Responses to Recent Climate Change , 2006 .

[58]  M. Atkinson,et al.  Coral growth in high-nutrient, low-pH seawater: a case study of corals cultured at the Waikiki Aquarium, Honolulu, Hawaii , 1995, Coral Reefs.

[59]  Sandra A. Brown,et al.  Mass and nutrient content of dead wood in a central Illinois floodplain forest , 1996, Wetlands.

[60]  K. Kathiresan,et al.  Biology of mangroves and mangrove Ecosystems , 2001 .

[61]  Scott W. Nixon,et al.  Between Coastal Marshes and Coastal Waters — A Review of Twenty Years of Speculation and Research on the Role of Salt Marshes in Estuarine Productivity and Water Chemistry , 1980 .

[62]  Jean-Pierre Gattuso,et al.  Marine calcification as a source of carbon dioxide : positive feedback of increasing atmospheric CO2 , 1994 .

[63]  Javier Romero,et al.  Dynamics of Millenary Organic Deposits Resulting from the Growth of the Mediterranean Seagrass Posidonia oceanica , 1997 .

[64]  J. Dugan,et al.  The response of macrofauna communities and shorebirds to macrophyte wrack subsidies on exposed sandy beaches of southern California , 2003 .

[65]  David J. Smith,et al.  High connectivity of Indo-Pacific seagrass fish assemblages with mangrove and coral reef habitats , 2008 .

[66]  M. Brzezinski,et al.  Net primary production, growth, and standing crop of Macrocystis pyrifera in Southern California. , 2008, Ecology.

[67]  R. E. Turner,et al.  Dependence of fishery species on salt marshes: The role of food and refuge , 1984 .

[68]  R. Lewis Ecological engineering for successful management and restoration of mangrove forests , 2005 .

[69]  D. Alongi Mangrove forests: Resilience, protection from tsunamis, and responses to global climate change , 2008 .

[70]  A. Sournia,et al.  The comparative estimation of phytoplanktonic, microphytobenthic and macrophytobenthic primary production in the oceans , 1990 .

[71]  M. Mateo,et al.  The belowground organs of the Mediterranean seagrass Posidonia oceanica as a biogeochemical sink , 1994 .

[72]  M. Brzezinski,et al.  Community structure and productivity of subtidal turf and foliose algal assemblages , 2009 .

[73]  E. Odum Tidal Marshes as Outwelling/Pulsing Systems , 2002 .

[74]  T. Dittmar,et al.  Organic carbon dynamics in mangrove ecosystems : a review , 2008 .

[75]  Gail L. Chmura,et al.  Carbon accumulation in bay of fundy salt marshes: Implications for restoration of reclaimed marshes , 2001 .

[76]  A. Komiyama,et al.  Allometry, biomass, and productivity of mangrove forests: A review , 2008 .

[77]  H. Rai,et al.  Primary production in the Amazonian aquatic ecosystem , 1984 .

[78]  J. Cebrian Variability and control of carbon consumption, export, and accumulation in marine communities , 2002 .

[79]  R. Schnur,et al.  Climate-carbon cycle feedback analysis: Results from the C , 2006 .

[80]  Frederick T. Short,et al.  A Global Crisis for Seagrass Ecosystems , 2006 .

[81]  S. V. Smith Marine macrophytes as a global carbon sink. , 1981, Science.

[82]  S. V. Smith Physical, chemical and biological characteristics* of CO2 gas flux across the air‐water interface , 1985 .

[83]  M. Foster,et al.  COMPOSITION, DISTRIBUTION, AND ABUNDANCE OF DEEP‐WATER (>30 m) MACROALGAE IN CENTRAL CALIFORNIA 1 , 2003 .

[84]  I. Nagelkerken,et al.  The habitat function of mangroves for terrestrial and marine fauna: a review , 2008 .

[85]  O. Hoegh‐Guldberg,et al.  Introduction: Effects of ocean acidification on marine ecosystems , 2008 .

[86]  C. Wilkinson Status of coral reefs of the world , 2000 .

[87]  M. Simard,et al.  A systematic method for 3D mapping of mangrove forests based on Shuttle Radar Topography Mission elevation data, ICEsat/GLAS waveforms and field data: Application to Ciénaga Grande de Santa Marta, Colombia , 2008 .

[88]  Scott D. Bridgham,et al.  The carbon balance of North American wetlands , 2006, Wetlands.

[89]  Craig W. Osenberg,et al.  Detecting ecological impacts : concepts and applications in coastal habitats , 1996 .

[90]  G. Polis,et al.  Linking Marine and Terrestrial Food Webs: Allochthonous Input from the Ocean Supports High Secondary Productivity on Small Islands and Coastal Land Communities , 1996, The American Naturalist.

[91]  S. Beer,et al.  Managing seagrasses for resilience to climate change , 2008 .

[92]  J. Honculada Primavera Mangroves and brackishwater pond culture in the Philippines , 1995 .

[93]  J. Shaw,et al.  Salt-marsh aggradation in response to late-Holocene sea-level rise at Amherst Point, Nova Scotia, Canada , 1999 .

[94]  C. Duarte,et al.  Patterns in decomposition rates among photosynthetic organisms: the importance of detritus C:N:P content , 1993, Oecologia.

[95]  H. M. Page,et al.  Assessing the importance of land and marine sources of organic matter to kelp forest food webs , 2008 .

[96]  C. McQuaid,et al.  Trophic structure of the marine food web at the Prince Edward Islands (Southern Ocean) determined by δ13C and δ15N analysis , 2000 .

[97]  L. Deegan,et al.  Salt Marsh Ecosystem Support of Marine Transient Species , 2002 .

[98]  Nicolas Gruber,et al.  The Oceanic Sink for Anthropogenic CO2 , 2004, Science.

[99]  A. Buschmann,et al.  Farming of the Giant Kelp Macrocystis Pyrifera in Southern Chile for Development of Novel Food Products , 2006, Journal of Applied Phycology.

[100]  H. Janzen Carbon cycling in earth systems—a soil science perspective , 2004 .

[101]  R. Whittaker Communities and Ecosystems , 1975 .

[102]  B. Russell,et al.  Land-to-sea connectivity: linking human-derived terrestrial subsidies to subtidal habitat change on open rocky coasts. , 2009, Ecological applications : a publication of the Ecological Society of America.

[103]  Carrie V. Kappel,et al.  Non‐linearity in ecosystem services: temporal and spatial variability in coastal protection , 2009 .

[104]  C. D. Field,et al.  World Mangrove Atlas , 1997 .

[105]  James T. Morris,et al.  Eco-Physiological Controls on the Productivity of Spartina Alterniflora Loisel , 2002 .

[106]  J. Vincent,et al.  Mangroves protected villages and reduced death toll during Indian super cyclone , 2009, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[107]  C. Duarte,et al.  Changes in community structure and biomass of seagrass communities along gradients of siltation in SE Asia , 1998 .

[108]  K. Mann,et al.  Ecological energetics of the seaweed zone in a marine bay on the Atlantic coast of Canada. I. Zonation and biomass of seaweeds , 1972, Marine Biology.

[109]  M. Tegner,et al.  Effects of a large sewage spill on a kelp forest community: Catastrophe or disturbance? , 1995 .

[110]  L. Airoldi,et al.  Recovering a lost baseline: missing kelp forests from a metropolitan coast , 2008 .

[111]  Michael J. Sullivan,et al.  Community Structure and Functional Dynamics of Benthic Microalgae in Salt Marshes , 2002 .

[112]  D. Cahoon,et al.  Global carbon sequestration in tidal, saline wetland soils , 2003 .

[113]  K. Boonsong,et al.  Potential use of mangrove plantation as constructed wetland for municipal wastewater treatment. , 2003, Water science and technology : a journal of the International Association on Water Pollution Research.

[114]  F. Mackenzie,et al.  Life on the margin: implications of ocean acidification on Mg-calcite, high latitude and cold-water marine calcifiers , 2008 .

[115]  Jane Lubchenco,et al.  MARINE RESERVES ARE NECESSARY BUT NOT SUFFICIENT FOR MARINE CONSERVATION , 1998 .

[116]  Langdon,et al.  Geochemical consequences of increased atmospheric carbon dioxide on coral reefs , 1999, Science.

[117]  H. Lenihan,et al.  Depletion, Degradation, and Recovery Potential of Estuaries and Coastal Seas , 2006, Science.

[118]  Carlos M. Duarte,et al.  The fate of marine autotrophic production , 1996 .

[119]  A. Ellison,et al.  The global conservation status of mangroves , 1997 .

[120]  Corinne Le Quéré,et al.  Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis , 2013 .

[121]  Frederick T. Short,et al.  Accelerating loss of seagrasses across the globe threatens coastal ecosystems , 2009, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[122]  C. Harrold,et al.  Organic enrichment of submarine‐canyon and continental‐shelf benthic communities by macroalgal drift imported from nearshore kelp forests , 1998 .

[123]  M. Mateo,et al.  Carbon flux in seagrass ecosystems , 2006 .

[124]  W. N. Wheeler,et al.  Seasonal growth and productivity ofMacrocystis integrifolia in British Columbia, Canada , 1986 .

[125]  V. Rivera‐Monroy,et al.  Developing Performance Measures of Mangrove Wetlands Using Simulation Models of Hydrology, Nutrient Biogeochemistry, and Community Dynamics , 2005 .

[126]  T. J. Smith,et al.  Downed wood in Micronesian mangrove forests , 2000, Wetlands.

[127]  Jan E. Vermaat,et al.  Mangroves mitigate tsunami damage: A further response , 2006 .

[128]  M. Atkinson,et al.  Possible effects of ocean acidification on coral reef biogeochemistry: topics for research , 2008 .

[129]  R. Kneib Salt Marsh Ecoscapes and Production Transfers by Estuarine Nekton in the Southeastern United States , 2002 .

[130]  David Barnes,et al.  Perspectives on coral reefs , 1983 .

[131]  Mark Spalding,et al.  World atlas of coral reefs , 2001 .

[132]  R. Buddemeier,et al.  Global change and coral reef ecosystems , 1992 .

[133]  P. Ralph,et al.  Human impacts on seagrasses: Eutrophication, sedimentation, and contamination , 2007 .

[134]  Carlos M. Duarte,et al.  Seagrass ecology at the turn of the millennium: challenges for the new century , 1999 .

[135]  T. Stocker,et al.  High-resolution carbon dioxide concentration record 650,000–800,000 years before present , 2008, Nature.

[136]  D. Monson,et al.  Changes in sea urchins and kelp following a reduction in sea otter density as a result of the Exxon Valdez oil spill , 2000 .

[137]  Stuart Banks,et al.  Deep-water kelp refugia as potential hotspots of tropical marine diversity and productivity , 2007, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[138]  C. Duarte Seagrass nutrient content , 1990 .

[139]  H. Hildenbrandt,et al.  Advances and limitations of individual-based models to analyze and predict dynamics of mangrove forests: a review , 2008 .

[140]  Alberto Borges,et al.  Reconciling opposing views on carbon cycling in the coastal ocean: Continental shelves as sinks and near-shore ecosystems as sources of atmospheric CO2 , 2009 .

[141]  Denis Allemand,et al.  Photosynthesis and Calcification at Cellular, Organismal and Community Levels in Coral Reefs: A Review on Interactions and Control by Carbonate Chemistry , 1999 .

[142]  I. Valiela,et al.  Mangrove Forests: One of the World's Threatened Major Tropical Environments , 2001 .

[143]  Clive Wilkinson,et al.  Status of the coral reefs of the world: 2008 , 2008 .

[144]  M. Graham,et al.  Effects of Local Deforestation on the Diversity and Structure of Southern California Giant Kelp Forest Food Webs , 2004, Ecosystems.

[145]  M. Bertness,et al.  Role of Crab Herbivory in Die‐Off of New England Salt Marshes , 2009, Conservation biology : the journal of the Society for Conservation Biology.

[146]  J. Estes,et al.  Magnification of Secondary Production by Kelp Detritus in Coastal Marine Ecosystems , 1989, Science.

[147]  N. Koedam,et al.  Restoration and management of mangrove systems – A lesson for and from the East African region , 2001 .

[148]  Steven P. Hamburg,et al.  Estimating the Carbon Content of Russian Forests; A Comparison of Phytomass/Volume and Allometric Projections , 1997 .

[149]  P. Glynn,et al.  Poorly cemented coral reefs of the eastern tropical Pacific: Possible insights into reef development in a high-CO2 world , 2008, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[150]  R. Watson,et al.  Simulation Estimates of Annual Yield and Landed Value for Commercial Penaeid Prawns from a Tropical Seagrass Habitat, Northern Queensland, Australia , 1993 .

[151]  B. Santelices The discovery of kelp forests in deep-water habitats of tropical regions , 2007, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.

[152]  F. Morel,et al.  Comment on "Phytoplankton Calcification in a High-CO2 World" , 2008, Science.

[153]  E. Granek,et al.  Changes in biotic and abiotic processes following mangrove clearing , 2008 .

[154]  Rene N Rollon,et al.  Growth Performance of Planted Mangroves in the Philippines: Revisiting Forest Management Strategies , 2008, Ambio.

[155]  J. Estes,et al.  Predation, herbivory, and kelp evolution , 1988, Paleobiology.

[156]  T. J. Smith,et al.  Woody Debris in the Mangrove Forests of South Florida 1 , 2005 .

[157]  J. E. Eckman,et al.  Life and death beneath macrophyte canopies: effects of understory kelps on growth rates and survival of marine, benthic suspension feeders , 1991, Oecologia.

[158]  F. Dahdouh-Guebas,et al.  Structural development and productivity of replanted mangrove plantations in Kenya , 2008 .

[159]  Francis E. Putz,et al.  Tree growth, dynamics and productivity in a mature mangrove forest in Malaysia , 1986 .

[160]  K. Bird,et al.  Seaweed Cultivation for Renewable Resources , 1987 .

[161]  C. Duarte,et al.  Patterns in leaf herbivory on seagrasses , 1998 .

[162]  T. Terawaki,et al.  Ecology and restoration techniques for Sargassum beds in the Seto Inland Sea, Japan. , 2003, Marine pollution bulletin.

[163]  K. Kathiresan,et al.  Coastal mangrove forests mitigated tsunami , 2005 .

[164]  S. V. Smith,et al.  Coral-reef area and the contributions of reefs to processes and resources of the world's oceans , 1978, Nature.

[165]  Glenn De'ath,et al.  Declining Coral Calcification on the Great Barrier Reef , 2009, Science.

[166]  M. Mateo,et al.  Primary production, stocks and fluxes in the Mediterranean seagrass Posidonia oceanica , 1994 .

[167]  W. Schlesinger Evidence from chronosequence studies for a low carbon-storage potential of soils , 1990, Nature.

[168]  G. Kendrick,et al.  Trophic Transfers from Seagrass Meadows Subsidize Diverse Marine and Terrestrial Consumers , 2008, Ecosystems.

[169]  T. J. Smith,et al.  Mangrove production and carbon sinks: A revision of global budget estimates , 2008 .

[170]  Robert E. Ferguson Effects of Ocean Acidification on Marine Ecosystems , 2009 .

[171]  V. A. Gerard Some aspects of material dynamics and energy flow in a kelp forest in Monterey Bay, California , 1976 .

[172]  E. Maier‐Reimer,et al.  Early detection of ocean acidification effects on marine calcification , 2009 .

[173]  Victor H. Rivera-Monroy,et al.  Adapting an Ecological Mangrove Model to Simulate Trajectories in Restoration Ecology , 1999 .